PROPULSION I

UNIT IV
Axial Compressors
 Arrangement
• Consists of Inlet guide vanes and alternate sets of rotor and
stator blades.
• Inlet guide vanes is at the entry to guide correctly the air
into the first rotor blade.
• Rotor consists of moving sets of blades fixed to the spindle.
It imparts kinetic energy to air which is then converted into
pressure.
• Stator consists of fixed sets of blades fixed to the outer
casing. It serves to recover part of kinetic energy imparted
to working fluid. Main purpose is to change the direction of
the air flow as it leaves each stage of compressor rotor and
to give proper direction for entry into next stage. Eliminates
turbulence. Fitted with shrouds to prevent loss of air.
Axial Flow Compressor Stage
 Stage velocity triangles
• U Peripheral velocity
of rotor blades
• C Absolute velocity of
Fluid ( Air)
• W Relative velocity of
Fluid
• α Absolute Air angle
• β Air angle relative to
Rotor
• a Axial
• t Circumferential or
whirl
• Above fig is for one
stage. If the flow is
repeated in another
stage c1 = c3 & α1 = α3
 Inference from Velocity triangles

• From velocity triangles at entry

• Ca1 = c1 cosα1 = w1 cos β1
• ct1 = c1 sin α1 = Ca1 tan α1
• wt1 = w1 sin β1 = Ca1 tan β1
• U = ct1 + wt1 = c1 sin α1 + w1 sin β1 = Ca1 (tan α1 + tan β1)
• From velocity triangles at exit
• Ca2 = c2 cosα2 = w2 cos β2
• ct2 = c2 sin α2 = Ca1 tan α2
• wt2 = w2 sin β2 = Ca2 tan β2
• U = ct2 + wt2 = c2 sin α2 + w2 sin β2 = Ca2 (tan α2 + tan β2)
• For constant axial velocity through stage
• Ca1 = Ca2= Ca3 = Ca
• Ca = c1 cosα1 = w1 cos β1 = c1 cosα2 = w1 cos β2
• u/ca = 1/φ = tan α1 + tan β1 = tan α2 + tan β2
• This can be written in another form
• ct1 + wt1 = ct2 + wt2
• ct2 - ct1 = wt1 - wt2
• Ca (tan α2 - tan α1) = Ca (tan β1 - tan β2)
 Work input to compressor

• Axial velocity Ca is assumed constant throughout the

stage. To maintain this, the area of flow is made
converging as pressure is increasing in every stage
• u = ca (tan α1 + tan β1) = ca (tan α2 + tan β2)
• Work input = W = u(ct2 - ct1)
• W = u (Ca tan α2 - Ca tan α1)
• W = u Ca (tan α2 - tan α1) =u Ca (tan β1 - tan β2)
• According to Euler’s energy equation
• E = ((c12 – c22 ) + (u12 – u22 ) + (w22 – w12 ))/2
• For Axial compressors u =u1 = u2
• W = ((c22 – c12 ) + (w12 – w22 ))/2
 Work done factor
• Due to secondary flows and the growth of boundary layers
on the hub and casing of the compressor annulus the axial
velocity along the blade height is not uniform. Typical axial
velocity distribution is shown in the above figure
• Axial velocity distributions: (a) at first stage, (b) at fourth
stage

•  
 Work done factor
• Work input = W = u(ct2 - ct1)
• W = u (Ca tan α2 - Ca tan α1)
• W = u Ca (tan α2 - tan α1) =u Ca (tan β1 - tan β2)
• u/ca = 1/φ = tan α1 + tan β1 = tan α2 + tan β2
• W = u(u- Ca (tan α1 + tan β2))
• Introducing Work done factor Ω
• W = Ω u Ca (tan β1 - tan β2)
• In terms of temperature difference ΔT s = T02- T01
• CP ΔTs = Ω u Ca (tan β1 - tan β2)
• ΔTs = Ω u Ca (tan β1 - tan β2)/ CP
Variation of mean work-done factor with
number of stages
 TS Diagram

• 1-2’-3’ Isentropic
compression
• 1-2-3 Actual
compression
• 03’ Final state at
the end of
isentropic
compression
 Stage Efficiency

• Stage Efficiency = Ideal work/Actual work

• h03’-h1/h03-h1=T03’-T1/T03-T1
• Wactual = h03-h1 = u Ca (tan α2 - tan α1 )
• = ((c22 – c12 )+ (w12 – w22 ))/2
• Advantages
• Air flows in almost straight path and less energy is lost as a result
of change in direction
• Compressor pressure ratio is high as number of stages can be
introduced.
• Smaller frontal area and hence reduced drag and weight
• Higher peak efficiency
• Discharge direction suitable for multi staging
• Disadvantage
• Susceptible to inlet icing and need to be taken care off
 Performance Co efficient

• Flow Co efficient (φ) = Axial velocity/ Peripheral speed = Ca / u

• It is also called as compressor velocity ratio. Sensitive to changes in
angle of incidence and an useful parameter for representing the
compressor stalling characteristics

• Rotor Pressure Loss coefficient (Yrel ) 

• Yrel = Pressure loss in rotor due to relative motion of air/ Pressure
equivalent of relative inlet velocity =( p01 rel – p02 rel )/(ρw12/2)
 
• Rotor Enthalpy Loss coefficient (εrel )
• εrel = Difference between the actual and isentropic enthalpy/ Enthalpy
equivalent of relative inlet velocity
= (h2 - h2’)/(w12/2) = Cp (T2 - T2’ )/ (w12/2)
• Due to friction and churning the enthalpy at the outlet will be more
and thereby more work input will be required
 Performance Co efficient
• Stator or Diffuser Pressure Loss coefficient (YD ) 
• YD = Pressure loss in diffuser due toflow velocity / Pressure equivalent of
actual velocity of the diffuser
• = ( p02 – p03 )/(ρ c22 /2)

• Stator or Diffuser Enthalpy Loss coefficient (εD ) 

• εD = Difference between the actual and isentropic enthalpy/ Enthalpy
equivalent of absolute inlet velocity
• = (h3 – h3’)/(ρ c22 /2)= Cp (T3 – T3’ )/ (ρ c22 /2)

• Loading Co efficient (ψ)

• Ψ = Actual stagnation enthalpy rise / Enthalpy equivalent of peripheral speed
of rotor
• = (h03 – h01 )/u2 = W/u2 = u Ca (tan β1 - tan β2 )/ u2 = φ (tan β1 - tan β2 )
• = φ (tan α2 - tan α1 ) = Cp (T03 – T01 )/ u2
• In terms of ηpc Ψ= Cp (T03’ – T01 )/ u2 * ηpc
 LOSSES
• Flow Losses
• Profile Loss
• Annulus Loss
• Secondary Loss
• Tip Clearance Loss
• Stage Losses
Profile Loss
 Profile Loss

• Growth of boundary layer on the blade profile.

Separation of the boundary layer occurs when the
adverse pressure gradient on the surface or surfaces
becomes too steep. This increases profile loss
• Suction surface of a blade is more prone to boundary
layer separation. The separation point depends on a)
blade profile b) degree of turbulence c) Reynolds number
d) the incidence
• Where the flow is supersonic or becomes supersonic on
the blade surface additional losses occur due to
formation of shock waves resulting from the local
deceleration of supersonic flow to subsonic
 Annulus Loss

• In stationary blade rows a loss of energy

occurs due to the growth of the boundary
layer on the end walls. This also occurs in the
rotating row blades but the flow on the end
walls is subjected to cascade rotation. The
boundary layer on the hub surface is subjected
to centrifugal force whereas on the outer
casing it is scrapped by the moving blades
 Secondary loss

• This loss occurs in the regions of flow near

the end walls owing to the presence of
unwanted circulatory or cross flows. Such
secondary flows develop on account of flow
turning through the blade channel in the
presence of annulus wall boundary layers
Secondary loss
Secondary loss
 Tip clearance loss
• Occurs due to the clearance between a
moving blade and the casing. In the rotor
blades suction side leads the pressure side.
Due to static pressure difference the flow
leaks from the pressure side to the suction
side. However due to the scrapping up of the
casing boundary layer by the blade tips the
scrapped flow opposes the tip leakage. Tip
clearance and secondary flows are closely
related
Tip clearance loss
Stage losses
 Degree of Reaction (R)

• Distribution of stage pressure rise between rotor and stator.

• Actual change of enthalpy in rotor/Actual change of enthalpy
in stage
• h2-h1/h3-h1 = T2-T1/T3 –T1
• In an axial compressor stage, diffusion takes place in both
rotor and stator, and there will be an increase in static
pressure through both rows.
• The degree of reaction is a useful concept in compressor
design, and formula obtained for it in terms of the various
velocities and air angles associated with the stage.
• Assumptions (a) Ca is constant through the stage, and (b) the
air leaves the stage with the same absolute velocity with
which it enters, i.e. C3 = C1
 Degree of Reaction (R)

• W = CP (ΔTA + ΔTB ) = CP ΔTS

• = U Ca (tanβ1 – tanβ2 ) = U Ca (tanα2 – tanα1 )
• Since all the work input to the stage takes place in the
rotor, the steady flow energy equation yields
• W= CP ΔTA + ( C22 – C12 )/2
• CP ΔTA = U Ca (tanα2 – tanα1 ) - ( C22 – C12 )/2
• C2 = Ca sec α2 C1 = Ca sec α1
• CP ΔTA = U Ca (tanα2 – tanα1 ) - Ca2 (sec2 α2 - sec2 α1 )/2
• R = ΔTA/( ΔTA + ΔTB)
• R = (U Ca (tanα2 – tanα1 ) - ( C22 – C12 )/2)/ U Ca (tanα2 – tanα1
)
• R =1- (Ca (tanα2 + tanα1 )/2U)
 Degree of Reaction (R)

• 2U/ Ca = tanα1 + tanβ1 + tanα2 + tanβ2

• Hence R = Ca ((2U/ Ca) - (2U/ Ca) + tanβ1 + tanβ2 ) /2U
• For R=0.5 tanβ1 + tanβ2 = U/ Ca
• From above equations tanα1 = tanβ2
• tanβ1 = tanα2 i.e. α1 = β2 β1 = α2
• Further more, since Ca is constant through the stage,
• Ca = C1 Cos α1 = C3 Cos α3
• It was initially assumed that C 1 = C3 and hence α1= α3
• Because of this equality of angles, namely α1 = β2 = α3 and β1 =
α2 the velocity diagram becomes symmetrical and blading
designed on this basis is sometimes referred to as symmetrical
blading. From the symmetry of the velocity diagram, it follows that
C1 = V2and V1 = C2
 Degree of Reaction (R)
• A stage designed with symmetrical blading will always be
referred to as a 50 per cent reaction stage,
• The degree of reaction was defined in terms of enthalpy rises
but can also be expressed in terms of changes in static
pressure.
• T ds = dh - v dp and assuming incompressible isentropic flow
O=dh-dp/ρ which on integration from state 1 to state 2
becomes h2 – h1 = (P2 – P1)/ρ showing that enthalpy and static
pressure changes are related.
• For R= 0 β 1 = β 2 the rotor blades are then of impulse type
(i.e. passage area the same at inlet and outlet) and all the static
pressure rise occurs in the stator.
• Conversely, for R= 1·0 the stators are of impulse type.
• For most efficient overall diffusion, it is desirable to share the
diffusion between both components of the stage, and for this
reason the use of 50 per cent reaction is attractive.
Effect of degree of reaction on shape of velocity diagram
 Performance Characteristics
• Ψ = φ (tanβ1 - tanβ2 ) = φ (tanα2 - tanα1 )
• Ψ =Loading co efficient
• Φ = Flow co efficient
• tanα2 = (1/ φ)- tanβ2
• Ψ = 1- φ (tanβ2 + tanα1 )
• (tanβ2 + tanα1 ) can be assumed to be constant. Hence writing
α1 = α3
• A = tanβ2 + tanα3
• Identifying the values with * Ψ* = 1- A φ*
• A= (1- Ψ*)/ φ*
• An off –design conditions
• Ψ = 1- A φ = 1-((1- Ψ*) φ / φ*)
Performance Characteristics
Performance curves of compressor
Performance curves of compressor
Performance curves
 Surging

• Unstable flow in axial compressor can be due to two reasons

• Separation of flow from the blade surfaces called stalling
• Complete breakdown of the steady through flow called surging
• Surging affects the whole engine whereas stalling is a local
phenomenon.
• Surging phenomenon is explained in the above fig. Let the
compressor operation at certain instant say “A” ( mA, pA ) on
the characteristic curve N3 If the flow rate is reduced to mB by
closing the valve and the static upstream valve is increased.
The higher pressure pB is matched with increased delivery
pressure at B developed by the compressor. With further
throttling of the flow ( mC & mS )the increased pressures are
matched with increased delivery pressures at C & S. Further
throttling to points D & E leads to lower pressures.
 Surging
• But the pipe pressure due to throttling will be higher than the delivery
pressures. This mismatch can exist only for a short time and the higher
pressure in the pipe pushes the air towards compressor and the
compressor regains its normal operation ( Point B) delivering higher
mass flow rate mB. However the valve position still corresponds to flow
rate mD and hence the compressor operating conditions return through
points C,S to D.Due to the breakdown of the flow through compressor
further falls to pE and the entire phenomenon EBCSDE is repeated again
and again. The frequency and magnitude of of this to-and-fro motion of
the air is called as Surging and depends on the relative volumes of
compressor and delivery pipe and the flow rate below mS.
• Surging of the compressor leads to vibration of the entire motion which
can ultimately lead to engine failure. Surge point S on each curve
corresponds to different speeds. The stable operation is on the right
side of this line. There is a limit on the right side operation as mass flow
cannot be increased beyond extream of the line due to Choaking
Surging
 STALLING
• Stalling is the separation of flow from the blade surfaces. At lower
flow rates ( Lower axial velocities ) the incidence is increased as
shown in Fig. At large values of incidence flow separation occurs
on the suction side and is referred as positive stalling . Negative
stall is due to the separation of flow occurring on the pressure
side.
• In a high pressure ratio multi stage compressor the axial velocity
is relatively small in higher pressure stages on account of higher
densities. In such stages a small deviation from the design point
causes the incidence to exceed its stalling value and stall cells first
appear near the Hub and Tip regions. The size and number of
these stall cells increase with decreasing flow rates. At very low
flow rates they grow larger and affect the entire blade height.
Large scale stalling of the blades causes a significant drop in the
delivery pressure which can lead to reversal or surge. The stage
efficiency also drops.
STALLING
  
ROTATING STALL
• Fig shows four blades in a compressor rotor. Due to
distortion and non uniformity of flow one of the blade
( 3rd) receives the flow at increased incidence and it
causes the blade to stall . This causes the passage
between 3rd & 4th blocked causing flow deflection to
neighbouring blades. . The 4th blade receives the flow at
increased incidence and 2nd at decreased incidence.
Therefore stalling occurs on the 4th blade also.
Progressive flow deflection towards left clears the blade
passages on the right on account of the decreasing
incidence and the resulting un stalling . Stall cells moves
towards the left side at a fraction of the blade speed.
  
ROTATING STALL
 Three-dimensional flow effects in compressor
annulus
• Radial equilibrium of fluid element
• The elementary theory assumed two-dimensional flow in the compressor
annulus
• Effect due to radial movement of the fluid is ignored.
• Assumption is quite reasonable for stages in which the blade height is small
relative to the mean diameter of the annulus, i.e. those of hub-tip ratio greater
than about 0·8, which would be typical of the later stages of a compressor.
• The front stages, however, have lower values of hub-tip ratio and values as low
as 0·4 are used for the first stage of aero-engine compressors so that a high
mass flow can be passed through a machine of low frontal area.
• When the compressor has a low hub-tip ratio in the first stage and a high hub-
tip ratio in the later stages, the annulus will have a substantial taper and the
streamlines will not lie on a surface of revolution parallel to the axis of the rotor
as previously assumed.
• Under these conditions, the flow must have a radial component of velocity,
although it will generally be small compared with the axial and whirl
components.
 Three-dimensional flow effects in compressor annulus

• A second cause of radial movement

• Because the flow has a whirl component, the pressure must increase with
radius, i.e. up the blade height, to provide the force associated with the
centripetal acceleration of the fluid. In the course of adjusting itself to
provide a balance between the pressure forces and the inertia forces, the
flow will undergo some movement in the radial direction.
• With a low hub-tip ratio, the variation in blade speed from root to tip is large
and this will have a major effect on the shape of the velocity triangles and
the resulting air angles.
• Due to change of pressure, and hence density, with radius will cause the fluid
velocity vectors to change in magnitude and these too affect the shape of the
velocity triangles.
• Air angles at the mean diameter will be far from representative of those at
the root and tip of a blade row.
• For high efficiency it is essential that the blade angles match the air angles
closely at all radii, and the blade must therefore be twisted from root to tip
to suit the changing air angles.
Three-dimensional flow effects in compressor annulus
 The inertia forces in the radial direction
• (i) the centripetal force associated with circumferential flow;
F(i) = m CW2 / r = (ρr dr dƟ) CW2 / r
• (ii) the radial component of the centripetal force associated
with the flow along the curved streamline; the radial force is
given by F(ii) = m CS2 Cos αS / rS = (ρr dr dƟ) Cos αS / rS suffix S
refers to the component along the streamline and rS is the
radius of curvature of the streamline.
• (iii) the radial component of the force required to produce
the linear acceleration along the streamline. 
• The centripetal force associated with the circumferential
flow is For the flow along the curved streamline, For the
acceleration along the streamline, the radial component of
force I F(iii) = m (dcS/dt)sin αS = (ρr dr dƟ) (dcS/dt)sin αS
• The total inertia force, F1, must be produced by the pressure
forces acting on the element in the radial direction
 radial equilibrium equation
• All the three forces are in the same direction
• Total inertia force, F1 = ρr dr dɵ( CW2 / r + CS2 Cos αS / rS +
(dcS/dt)sin αS )
• The pressure force, F p, producing this inertia force is obtained by
resolving in the radial direction to give
• FP = (p +dp) (r+dr)dƟ –pr dƟ – 2 ( p + dp/2)dr dƟ/2
• Equating the forces F1 and Fp, and neglecting second-order terms
• (1/ρ)(dp/dr) = (CW2 / r ) + (CS2 Sin αS / rS) + (dcS/dt)sin αS
• rs is so large, and αs so small, that the last two terms can be
ignored.
• (1/ρ)(dp/dr) = (CW2 / r ) which is radial equilibrium equation.
• The radial component of velocity is being neglected.
• The spaces between the blade rows Cr is very much smaller than
either Ca or Cw and can safely be assumed to be negligible.
 vortex energy equation.
• The stagnation enthalpy h0 at any radius r where the absolute
velocity is C is given by h0 = h + C2/2 =h + (Ca2 +CW2)/2
• variation of enthalpy with radius is therefore
dh0/dr= (dh/dr)+( Ca *d Ca/dr) + (Cw *d Cw/dr)
• From the thermodynamic relation T ds = dh - dp/ p,
• dh/dr = (T ds/dr)+(ds* dT/dr)+(dP/dr*ρ)-( dP*dρ)/( ρ2*dr)
• Dropping second-order terms
• dh/dr = (T ds/dr)+ dP/dr*ρ)
• Substituting for dh/dr
• dh0/dr= (T ds/dr)+ dP/dr*ρ)+Ca *d Ca/dr) + (Cw *d Cw/dr) 
• Using the radial equilibrium equation the second term of right-hand
side of the above equation can be replaced by CW2/r and neglecting
the entropy gradient term T ds/dr the basic equation for the
analysis of flow in the compressor annulus as
• dh0/dr= Ca *d Ca/dr) + (Cw *d Cw/dr)+ CW2/r (vortex energy equation.
 free vortex condition.
• Apart from regions near the walls of the annulus, the stagnation
enthalpy (and temperature) will be uniform across the annulus at
entry to the compressor.
• Taking constant specific work at all radii and as h0 increase
progressively through the compressor in the axial direction, dh0/dr
=0
• (Ca *d Ca/dr) + (Cw *d Cw/dr)+ CW2/r =0
• Taking Ca constant across the annulus, so that dCa/dr=O.
• d Cw/dr) =- CW/r or d Cw/ CW =- dr/r or which on integration gives
Cwr = constant (free vortex condition.) whirl velocity varies
inversely with radius,
• Three conditions of (a) constant specific work,(b) constant axial
velocity, and (c) free vortex variation of whirl velocity, naturally
satisfy the radial equilibrium equation and are therefore conducive
to the design flow conditions being achieved.
 Factors affecting Stage pressure ratio
• Tip speed
• Axial velocity
• High fluid deflections in the rotor blades
• Friction Loss
 Tip speed

• The centrifugal stress in the rotor blades depends on the rotational speed,
the blade material and the length of the blade.
• The maximum centrifugal tensile stress, which occurs at the blade root, can
be seen to be given by where ρb is the density of the blade material, ω is the
angular velocity, a is the cross-sectional area of the blade at any radius, and
suffixed r and t refer to root and tip of the blade.

• The ratio rr/rt is normally referred to as the hub-tip ratio.

• It is immediately apparent that the centrifugal stress is proportional to the
square of the tip speed and that a reduction of hub-tip ratio increases the
blade stress.
• (σct)max = ρb* Ut2(1-(rr2/rt2))/2
 Axial velocity
• The expression for stage temperature rise, which in conjunction with an
isentropic efficiency determines the stage pressure ratio, showed the
desirability of using a high value of axial velocity. A high axial velocity is also
required to provide a high flow rate per unit frontal area, which is important
for turbojet and turbofan engines.
• The axial velocity at inlet, however, must be limited for aerodynamic reasons.
Considering a first stage with no IGVs, the entry velocity will be purely axial in
direction and the velocity diagram at entry to the rotor will be as shown by
the right-angled triangle in Fig.
• The velocity relative to the rotor is given by V12 = C12+ U2 and, assuming the
axial velocity to be constant over the blade height, the maximum relative
velocity will occur at the tip, i.e. V1t
• The Mach number relative to the rotor tip is V1t/a, and for a given speed Ut , it
is therefore determined by the axial velocity at entry to the stage as indicated
by the curves in Fig. 5.5.
• The dotted velocity triangle in Fig. 5.5 shows how the Mach number at entry
may be slightly reduced by means of IGVs, and IGVs were aerodynamically
necessary until the ability to operate at transonic Mach numbers was
demonstrated.
 High fluid deflections in the rotor blades
The stage temperature rise was given
by ΔT0S =U Ca (tan β1- tan β2).
velocity triangles are drawn taking
same U values at inlet & outlet of
rotor blade
The amount of deflection required in
the rotor is shown by the directions
of the relative velocity vectors V1 and
V2, and the change in whirl velocity is
ΔC W Considering a fixed value of β1.
It is obvious that increasing the
deflection by reducing β2 entails a
reduction in V2.
In other words, high fluid deflection
implies a high rate of diffusion.
 Friction Loss
• Diffusion factor D =( Vmax – V2)/V1
. The variation of friction loss
with D obtained from a large
number of NACA tests is shown
in Fig.
• These tests were carried out
over a wide range of cascade
geometries for a particular
aerofoil section.
• It can be seen that for the rotor
hub region and stators the losses
are unaffected by variation in D
up to 0.6;
• However, in the rotor tip region,
the losses increase rapidly at
values of D above 0-4.  
 Air angle distributions for free vortex and constant reaction designs

• Variation of air angles from root to tip 

• In the case of the first stage, the choice is restricted because of the absence
of IGV s; this means that there is no whirl component at entry to the
compressor and the inlet velocity will be constant across the annulus.
• For all other stages the whirl velocity at entry to the rotor blades will be
determined by the axial velocity and the stator outlet angle from the
previous stage, giving more freedom in the aerodynamic design of the stage.
• The first stage will be investigated using a free vortex design, noting that the
condition Cwr =constant is satisfied for Cw = 0.
• The third stage will be investigated for three different design approaches, viz.
(i) free vortex, Rm= 0·50, (ii) constant reaction, Rm= 0·50 with radial
equilibrium ignored and (iii) exponential blading, Rm=0·50.
• Considering the first stage, the rotor blade angle at inlet (β1) is obtained
directly from the axial velocity and the blade speed. Air angles at root, mean
and tip, can be calculated considering the blade speeds at these points
Velocity Diagrams for First Stage
 –
Compressor blade design
• Blade angle distributions are determined from air angle distributions
• The requirements of any particular blade row are:
• firstly, that it should turn the air through the required angle (β1- β 2 )in the
case of the rotor and (α1 – α2 ) in the case of the stator
• secondly that it should carry out its diffusing process with optimum
efficiency, i.e. with a minimum loss of stagnation pressure.
• With regard to the first requirement, we shall see that due allowance must be
made for the fact that the air will not leave a blade precisely in the direction
indicated by the blade outlet angle. As far as the second requirement is
concerned, certainly the air and blade angles at inlet to a blade row must be
similar to minimize losses.
• The air angles have been calculated for the design speed and pressure ratio,
and under different operating conditions both the fluid velocities and blade
speed may change with resulting changes in the air angles. On the other
hand, the blade angles, once chosen, are fixed.
• For best performance over a range of operating conditions the blade inlet
angle should not be equal to the design value of the relative air angle.
 Compressor blade design
• Blade design to a certain extent dependent on the particular preference and
previous experience of the designer & experimental results from wind
tunnel tests on single blades or rows of blades.
• In the former case, the effects of adjacent blades in the row have to be
accounted for by the application of empirical factors.
• The second type of data, from tests on rows or cascades of blades, is more
widely used.
• An annular tunnel would not satisfactorily reproduce conditions in a real
compressor and a considerable range of hub-tip ratios would have to be
tested. By using a straight cascade, mechanical complication of the test rig is
considerably reduced, and the two-dimensional flow conditions obtained in
a tunnel of rectangular section greatly simplifies the interpretation of the
test results.
• Cascade tests result in two main items of information. (a) the angle through
which the air is turned for a minimum loss; and (b) the corresponding
profile drag coefficient from which the cascade efficiency may be estimated.
When high velocities in the region of the sonic velocity are used, the tests
also yield valuable information on compressibility effects.
 Design process
• choice of rotational speed and annulus dimensions;
• determination of number of stages, using an assumed
efficiency;
• calculation of the air angles for each stage at the mean radius;
• determination of the variation of the air angles from root to
tip;
• investigation of compressibility effects;
• selection of compressor blading, using experimentally
obtained cascade data;
• check on efficiency previously assumed, using the cascade
data;
• estimation of off-design performance;
• rig testing.
 Comparison of Axial and Centrifugal compressor

Aspects Axial Compressor Centrifugal Compressor

Type of Flow Parallel to axis Radial

Pressure ratio/Stage About 1.25 5

Isentropic Efficiency Higher ( 86 to 88%) Lower( 80 to 82% )

Frontal Area Smaller Larger

Flexibility of Operation Limited Higher

Part Load Performance Poor Better

Effect of Deposits Adverse effect No adverse effect

Starting Torque High Low

Suitability for Multi staging More suitable Difficult

Delivery Pressure Lower ( 20 Bar ) Higher ( 40 Bar )

Efficiency with respect of speed Less Flat More Flat