Lecture 6 - Hydrology 2 - STD

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Example #2
In a given year, the Great Northern watershed,
with an area of 2500 km2, received 150 cm of
precipitation. The average rate of flow
measured in the Red Oak River, which drained
the watershed, was 40 m3/s. Seepage is
estimated to occur at a rate of 9.2 x 10-7 cm/s.
Evapotranspiration was estimated to be 45
cm/yr. What is the change in storage in the
watershed?
What do we know?
PRECIPITATION EVAPORATION
 Area = 2500 km2
 P = 150 cm/yr
 Seepage = 9.2 x 10-7
cm/s
 ET = 45 cm/yr
 Assume all flow in river
is due to runoff R = Qout
SEEPAGE
 S = ?
Qout = 40 m3/s
Solution #2
Principles of
Environmental
Engineering
Surface Water Hydrology
Measuring Precipitation, Evaporation,
Infiltration and Streamflow
Evaporation
 change of water from a liquid to a vapour
 influenced by:
• supply of energy (solar radiation)
• transport of vapor away from surface
Evaporation
 important for
prediction of
storage
requirements
 variations large
• seasonal
• regional
• surface conditions
Evaporation
Pan Evaporation Rates for Athens
University of Georgia
10
Evaporation (in)
8
6
4
2
0
Evaporation
Evaporation
 function of:
• solar radiation
• air temperature
• water temperature
• wind speed
• vapor pressure
 pan evaporation measurements most
commonly used
Measuring Evaporation
 pan evaporation
• class A pan
• diameter = 120.7 cm
• depth = 25 cm
• water depth = 20 cm
 lake evaporation
• 0.7*(pan evaporation)
 Dalton’s equation
http://www.engineering.uiowa.edu/~flood/Archive/images/panevap1.jpg
Evaporation
 Dalton’s Equation:
E = (es - ea) (a + bu)
where: es = vapor pressure at the water surface
ea = vapor pressure at some fixed level in the air
u = wind speed
a, b = empirical constants
 Lake Hefner: E = 1.22 (es - ea)u

Example #1
Using the empirical relationship developed
for Lake Hefner, estimate the evaporation
from a lake on a day that the air
temperature is 25 oC, the water
temperature is 15 oC, the wind speed is 6
m/s and the relative humidity is 42%.
What do we know?
Solution #1
Transpiration
 evaporation occurring through plant leaves
(stomatal openings)
 affected by plant physiology and environmental

factors:
• type of vegetation
• stage and growth of plants
• soil conditions (type and moisture)
• climate and weather
http://www.freewebs.com/jdingfel/Stomata.jpg
Evapotranspiration
 total water removed from an area by
transpiration from plants and evaporation
from soils, snow and water surfaces
 estimations made from:
ET = inflow - outflow ±  storage
 available moisture in root zone will limit ET
 ET rates depend on plant type, soil type,
meteorology, season (temperature)
 hard to model because of complex biology
and physics
Infiltration
 net movement of water into soil
 if rainfall rate (i) > infiltration
rate (f) → water infiltrates
surface soil at a rate that
generally decreases with time
 if i < f, infiltration ≈ f
 function of rainfall intensity,
soil type, surface conditions,
vegetative cover
Figure 6-12, pg 203 or 7-13, pg. 260
Soil Pores
http://www.terragis.bees.unsw.edu.au/terraGIS_soil/images/water_fig_9.jpg
Also:
•expanding soil particles (e.g. clay) decrease pore size
•breaking of clumps by raindrops causes clogging of pores
Infiltration
SOIL TYPE STEADY INFILTRATION RATE
(mm/hr)
gravels and sands >20
sandy and silty 10 - 20

soils
loams 5 - 10
clayey soils 1-5
http://www.css.cornell.edu/faculty/hmv1/watrshed/Soiltype.htm
Horton’s Infiltration Equation
 When i > f, at all times
f  fc   fo  fc  e  -kt 
where f = infiltration rate (cm/hr)

fo = initial infiltration rate (cm/hr)
fc = critical infiltration rate (cm/hr)
k = empirical constant (hr-1)
t = time (hr)
Horton Model - Typical Values
Soil Type fc fo k
(mm/hr) (mm/hr) (hr-1)
Alphalpha Loamy 3.56 48.26 38.29
Sand
Carnegie Sandy 4.50 35.52 19.64
Loam
Dothan Loamy 6.68 8.81 1.40
Sand
Fuquay Pebbly 6.15 15.85 4.70
Loamy Sand
Leefield Loamy 4.39 28.80 7.70
Sand
Troop Sand 4.57 58.45 32.71
From: Hydrology and Floodplain Analysis, P.B. Bedient and W.C. Huber,
2nd. Ed., Addison-Wesley Pub. Co., © 1992)
Example #2
 A soil has the following characteristics
fo = 1.5 in/hr
fc = 0.20 in/hr
k = 0.35 hr -1
 What are the values of f at t = 12 min, 30 min, 1
hr, 2 hr, and 6 hr?
 What is the total volume of infiltration over the
six hour period over a surface area of 1 in2?
What do we know?
 infiltration data
 can only use Horton’s equation if i>f
 total volume is the area under the curve -
obtained by integrating the equation
Example #2
Infiltration Curve
Infiltration 1.60
time (hr) rate (in/hr) 1.40
Infiltration rate (in/hr)

0.2 1.20
0.5 1.00
1 0.80
0.60
2
0.40
6
0.20
0.00
0 2 4 6 8
Time (hr)
What do we need to know?
 assume i > f
 need equation to calculate the total
volume
t t

Vol  As  f dt  As  f c   f o  f c  e - kt
 dt
0 0

 As  f c t 
 fo  fc 

1 e  kt

t


 k 0

Example #2 Solution
Limitations
 for sandy soils
• fo generally exceeds most rainfall intensities
• all rainfall infiltrates
• f=i
 infiltration capacity, f, should reduce in
proportion to the cumulative infiltration
volume not with time
Streamflow
 From where does
the water come?
Streamflow
 Important terms
• Interflow: movement of water through a shallow
soil horizon without reaching the zone of
saturation
• Overland flow: surface runoff; movement of water
over land, down-gradient to nearest channel (river,
stream, etc.)
• Baseflow: portion of flow in a stream that orginates
from groundwater and soil, (e.g. from a spring)
• Channel flow: precipitation falling directly on the
water surface
Streamflow
(Figure 6-13, p.
206)
Measuring Streamflow
 measured at an
observing station
or elevation above
a specific datum
in a channel
(Figure 6-15, p.
Streamflow and Rating Curves
 can measure velocity and depths at particular
cross-section of the stream with time
Reading and Review
 2nd Edition Text Reading: p. 254-264
 Review Questions:
 pg. 283 # 2, 3, 6-9, 11-16, 17-19, 26
 1st Edition Text Reading: p. 198-207

 Review Questions:
p. 218 #2, 3, 6-9, 11-16, 17-19, 26
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Welcome!

CE 2B03 Virtual Classroom

 Feel free to try the:

 Lake Hefner: E = 1.22 (es - ea)u

 affected by plant physiology and environmental

sandy and silty 10 - 20

clayey soils 1-5

where f = infiltration rate (cm/hr)

Infiltration rate (in/hr)

 1st Edition Text Reading: p. 198-207

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