Chapter 4

Induction and Recursion

 Objectives
 Mathematical Induction
 Strong Induction and Well-Ordering
 Recursive Definitions and Structural
Induction
 Recursive Algorithms
 4.1- Mathematical Induction

 Introduction
 Mathematical Induction
 Examples of Proofs by Mathematical
Induction
 Principle of
Mathematical
Induction
Principle of Mathematical Induction
To prove P(n) is true for all possible
integers n, where P(n) is a propositional
function, we complete two step:
Basis step:
Verifying P(1) is true
Inductive step:
Show P(k) → P(k+1) is true for all k>0
 Induction: Example 1

Prove that 1 + 2 + 3+ …+ n = n(n+1)/2 for all integers n>0

Solution.
Let P(n)=“ 1+2+3+…+ n = n(n+1)/2”.
 Basis step: P(1) = “1 = 1(1+1)/2”  true
 Inductive step: With arbitrary k>0,
P(k) =“ 1+ 2+…+ k = k(k+1)/2” is true.
We have
1+2+3+…+k+(k+1)= k(k+1)/2 + (k+1)
= [k(k+1)+ 2(k+1)]/2
= (k+1)(k+2)/2
= (k+1)((k+1)+1)/2
P(k+1)=“1+2+3+…+k+1 = (k+1)(k+2)/2” is true.
P(k)  P(k+1): true
Proved.
 Example 2 p.268
 Conjecture a formula for the sum of the first n positive odd integers. Then
prove your conjecture using mathematical induction.
 Solution.
The sum of the first n positive odd integers for n=1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are:
1=1, 1+3=4, 1+3+5=9,
1+3+5+7=16, 1+3+5+7+9=25.
 Conjecture: 1+3+5+…+(2n-1)=n2.
 Proof. Let P(n)=“1+3+5+…+(2n-1)=n2.”
- Basis step. P(1)=“1=1” is true.
- Inductive step. (P(k) P(k+1)) is true.
Suppose P(k) is true for arbitrary k > 0. That is, “1+3+5+…+(2k-1)=k 2”
We have, 1+3+5+…+(2k-1)+(2k+1)=k2+2k+1 = (k+1)2.
So, P(k+1) is true.
Proved.
 Induction: Examples 2..13 – pages: 268..278
 1+3+5+…+ (2n-1) = n2
 20+21+22+23+…+2n = ∑ 2n = 2n+1 -1
 ∑arj = a + ar + ar2+ … + arn = (arn+1-a)/(r-1)
 n < 2n
 2n < n! , n>3
 n3-n is divisible by 3, n is positive integer
 The number of subsets of a finite set: a set with n elements has 2 n subsets.
 ….
 Let H(j)= 1/1 + ½ + 1/3 + … + 1/j
Prove that H(2n)  1 + n/2 for all n  0
 4.2- Strong Induction and Well-Ordering

Principle of Strong Induction

To prove P(n) is true for all positive integers n,
where P(n) is a propositional function, two steps
are performed:
Basis step:
Verifying P(1) is true
Inductive step:
Show [P(1) ^ P(2) ^ … ^ P(k)] → P(k+1) is true
for all k>0
 Strong Induction: Example 1

Prove that if n is an integer greater than 1, then n

can be written as the product of primes
P(n) : n can be written as the product of primes
Basis steps: P(2) = true // 2=2 , product of 1 primes
P(4) = true // 4=2.2
Inductive step:
Assumption: P(j)=true for all positive j ≤ k
- Case k+1 is a prime  P(k+1) =true
- Case k+1 is a composite  k+1= ab, 2 ≤ a ≤ b<k+1
 P(k) is true
 Strong Induction: Example 2

Prove that every amount of postage of 12 cents

or more can be formed using just 4-cents and 5-
cents stamps
P(n) : “ n cents can be formed using just 4-cent and 5-cent stamps”
P(12) is true : 12 cents = 3. 4 cents
P(13) is true : 13= 2.4 + 1.5
P(14) is true: 14= 1.4 + 2.5
P(15) is true: 15= 3.5
Assumption: P(j) is true with 12 ≤j ≤ k, k>15  P(k-3) is true
k+1= (k-3) + 4 , k>12
 P(k+1) is true because k+1 is the result of adding a 4-cent stamp to the
amount k-3
 Proved
Using Strong Induction in Computational
Geometry
 Definitions
Strong Induction in Computational Geometry
Lemma 1: Every simple polygon has an interior
diagonal.

Proof: page 290

 Strong Induction in Computational Geometry

Theorem 1:
A simple polygon with n sides, where n is integer
with n ≥ 3, can be triangulated into n-2 triangles

Proof: page 289

 4.3- Recursive Definition and
Structural Induction
 Introduction
 Recursively Defined Functions
 Recursively Defined Sets and Structures
 Structural Induction
 Generalized Induction
 Recursive Algorithms
 Recursion: Introduction
 Objects/ functions may be difficultly defined.
 Define an object/function in terms of itself
 Examples:

 0, n  0
n

 1, n  0  i  n 1
n  i , n  0
2   n 1  
n
i 0
2.2 , n  0 i 0
 Recursively Defined Functions

 Recursive ( inductive) function

Two steps to define a function with the set of
nonnegative integers as its domain:
 Basis step: Specify the value of the function at zero.
 Recursive step: Give a rule for finding its value at
an integer from its values at smaller integers
 Example: Find f(1), f(2), f(4),f(6) of the following
function: n, n  3

f ( n)  
3n  f (n  1), n  3
 Recursively Defined Functions

 Example: Give the recursive definition of ∑ai , i=0..k

 Basis step: ∑ai =a0, i=0
 Inductive step:
a0 + a1 + … + ak-1 + ak
( ∑ai , i=0..k-1)
∑ai =ak + ( ∑ai , i=0..k-1)
 Recursively Defined Functions
Definition 1: Fibonacci numbers  1, n  0,1
f ( n)  
 f (n  1)  f (n  2), n  1
Theorem 1: Lamé’s theorem: Let a,b be integers, a ≥ b.
Then the number of divisions used by the Euclidean
algorithm to find gcd(a,b) is less than or equal to five
times the number of decimal digits in b.
Proof: page 298
Example gcd(25,7), b= 7 , 1 digit procedure gcd(a,b)
x:=a; y:=b
x y r while y  0
25 7 25 mod 7=4 begin
7 4 7 mod 4=3 r := x mod y
x:=y
4 3 4 mod 3=1 y:= r
3 1 3 mod 1=0 ( 4 divisions) end { gcd(a,b) is x}
1 0 Stop
Recursively Defined Sets and Structures

 Example S= { 3,6,9,12,15, 18,21,…}

Step 1: 3S
Step 2: If xS and yS then x+yS
 Definition 2: The set ∑* of string over alphabet ∑
can be defined recursively by:
Basis step: λ  ∑*, λ is the empty string with no
symbols
Recursive step: If w ∑* and x ∑ then wx ∑*

Example: ∑ ={0,1}  ∑* is the set of string made by 0 and 1 with

arbitrary length and arbitrary order of symbols 0 and 1
Recursively Defined Sets and Structures

Definition 3: String Concatenation ()

Basis step: If w  ∑* then wλ=w, λ is the empty string
Recursive step: If w1 ∑* and w2 ∑* and x ∑
then w1(w2x) =(w1w2)x

Example: ∑ ={0,1}  ∑* is the set of string made by 0 and 1

with arbitrary length and arbitrary order of symbols 0 and 1
 4.4- Recursive Algorithms

 Definition 1: An algorithm is called recursive if it

solves a problem by reducing it to an instance of
the same problem with smaller input.

Example: Recursive algorithm for computing n!

procedure factorial (n: nonnegative integer)

if n=0 then factorial(n) :=1
else factorial(n) = n.factorial(n-1)

n!= 1 , n=0
n!= 1.2.3.4…n = n.(n-1)!, n>0
 Recursive Algorithms…

Example: Recursive algorithm for computing an

procedure power (a: nonzero real number

n: nonnegative integer)
if n=0 then power(a,n) :=1
else power(a,n)=a.power(a,n-1)

an= 1 , n=0
an= a.a.a…a = a.an-1, n>0
 Recursive Algorithms…

Example: Recursive algorithm for computing bn mod m m ≥

2, n ≥ 0, 1 ≤ b < m.

bn mod m = (b.(bn-1 mod m) mod m

b0 mod m = 1
Using division to improve performance: ( n steps backward to 0 faster)
If n is even  bn = bn/2.bn/2
 bn mod m = ((bn/2 mod m). (bn/2 mod m)) mod m
 bn mod m = (bn/2 mod m)2 mod m
If n is odd bn = b.b n/2.b n/2
 bn mod m = ([(b n/2 mod m)2 mod m].(b mod m))mod m

Algorithm: page 313

 Recursive Algorithms…

Example: Recursive algorithm for computing gcd(a,b) a,b:

non negative integer, a < b

If a>b then swap a,b

gcd(a,b)=b , a=0 Algorithm: page 313
gcd (a,b) = gcd(b mod a, a)
 Recursive Algorithms…

Example: Recursive algorithm for linear

searching the value x in the sequence
ai, ai+1,…, aj, sub-sequence of an.
1≤ i ≤ n, 1 ≤ j ≤ n

i>j  location =0
ai=x  location = i
location (i, j, x) = location ( i+1, j, x)

Algorithm: page 314 – You should modify it.

 Recursive Algorithms…

Example: Recursive algorithm for binary searching

the value x in the increasingly ordered sequence ai,
ai+1,…, aj-1, sub-sequence of an. 1≤ i ≤ n, 1 ≤ j ≤ n
1≤ i ≤ n, 1 ≤ j ≤ n
procedure binary-search(x, i, j)
if i>j then location=0
m= (i+j)/2
if x= am then location =m
else if x< am then location= binary-search(x, i, m-1)
else location= binary-search(x, m+1, j)

Algorithm: page 314 – You should modify it.

 Proving Recursive Algorithms Correct

 Using mathematical induction.

 Example: prove the algorithm that computes n! is correct.

If n=0, first step of the algorithm tells us

procedure f (n: nonnegative integer) f(0)=1  true
if n=0 then f(n) :=1 Assuming f(n) is true for all n≥0
else f(n) = n.f(n-1) f( n)= 1.2.3….(n)
(n+1).f(n)= 1.2.3…n.(n+1) = (n+1)!
f(n+1) = (n+1)!
Conclusion: f(n) is true for all integer n,
n≥0

More examples: Page 315

 Recursion and Iteration

procedure rfibo (n: nonnegative integer)

If n=0 then rFibo(0)=0
Else if n=1 then rFibo(1)=1
Else rFibo(n) := rFibo(n-2) + rFibo(n-1)

procedure iFibo (n: nonnegative integer)

If n=0 then y:=0
Else if n=1 then y:=1
Else Begin
x:=0 ; y:=1
for i:= 2 to n
Begin
z:= x+y; x:= y; y:=z Recursive algorithm uses far
End
End { iFibo(n) = z}
more computation than
iterative one
Merge
Sort

Procedure mergeSort (
L=a1…an)
If n>1 then
Begin Merge?
m:= n/2
L1 := a1…am
L2 := am+1…an
L:=merge(mergeSort(L1),mergeSort(L2))
End
{L is sorted}
 L1: 1 2 2 5 7 9 12 15 17 19 L2: 3 5 8 9 11 15
Merge Sort
≤ L : 1 2 2 3 5 5 7 8 9 9 11 12 15 15 17 19

 Merge two sorted lists L1, L2 to list L, an

increasing ordered list.
procedure Merge (L1, L2: sorted list)
L:= empty list
While L1 and L2 are both no empty
Begin
remove smaller of first element of L1 and L2
and put it to the right end of L
if removal of this element makes one list empty
then remove all elements from the other list and
append them to L Theorem 1: The number of
End { L has increasing order } comparisons needed to merge sort
a list with n elements is O(nlog n)
 Summary
 Mathematical Induction
 Strong Induction and Well-Ordering
 Recursive Definitions and Structural
Induction
 Recursive Algorithms
Thanks