HARDWARE FUNCTION - CPU

CPU

 Is also called as processor.

WHAT IS CPU?

 It is the core of the computer, and your computer cannot function without it.
 It’s a small computer chip that sits atop the main circuit board (motherboard) of a
computer.
 Generally, it’s distinctly separate from the memory, which is where information is
stored and the graphics card or graphics chip, which handles all rendering of video
and 3D graphics to the monitor or screen.
 It acts upon the memory component, which stores all the data and information on
your system.
WHAT IS CPU?

 CPUs are built by placing billions of microscopic transistors onto a single

computer chip. Those transistors allow it to make the calculations it needs to run
programs that are stored on the system’s memory.
 One of the most common advancements of CPU technology is in making those
transistors smaller and smaller. That’s resulted in the improvement to CPU speed
over the decades.
CPU TRANSISTOR
SOC

Raspberry Pi SoC (System on a chip)

WHAT IS SOC?

 Intel and AMD both offer CPUs with graphics chips and memory stored on them
too, meaning they can do more than just standard CPU functions  SoC (System
on Chip).
 SoCs are common in mobile computing (smartphones), single board computers
(e.g raspberry pi) and other embedded systems.
  A CPU is only one of many components that make up a System on a Chip.
 Most popular SoCs are Qualcomm Snapdragon, MediaTek, Samsung Exynos,
HiSilicon Kirin, Nvidia Tegra, AMD’s Llano, Intel’s Ivy Bridge.
S0C - EXAMPLE

 Snapdragon is a system on a chip (SoC) for mobile devices designed and

marketed by Qualcomm Technologies Inc.
 A single SoC may include multiple CPU cores, an Adreno graphics processing
unit (GPU), a Snapdragon wireless modem, other software and hardware to
support a smartphone's global positioning system (GPS), camera, video,
audio,  and etc.
 Snapdragon SoC are embedded in devices of various systems,
including Android, Windows Phone and netbooks. They are also used in cars,
wearable devices and other devices.
WHAT IS SOC?

 Advantages:
 1. Size
 Although it is a little big larger than a CPU, but it is considered small because it
integrates many different component such as memory. So, it is easier to make a
small computer or make a complete computers in smartphones and tablets.
 So, the remaining space can be used to fit the device with a long-lasting battery
life.
WHAT IS SOC?

 Advantages:
 2. High level of integration and much shorter wiring
 Use considerably less power. So, it is a bonus to mobile computing.
 3. Cutting down number of physical chips
 Cheaper to build a computer with SoC.
 Disadvantages:
 1. Lack of flexibility
 Because everything is integrates, this will be wasteful and expensive if only one
component to be add/replaced for example if only want to add more RAM.
CPU COMPONENTS

 CONTROL UNIT:
 Does not execute program instructions; rather, it directs other parts of the system
to do so.
 ARITHMETIC/LOGIC UNIT:
 Can perform four kinds of arithmetic operations, or mathematical calculations:
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
 Also performs logical operations which is usually a comparison.
 The computer can then take action based on the result of the comparison. 
 HOW CPU EXECUTES PROGRAM

 Before an instruction can be executed, program instructions and data must be placed
into main memory (RAM) from an input device or a secondary storage device.
 Once the necessary data and instruction are in main memory (RAM), the central
processing unit performs the following four steps for each instruction (Those 4 steps
are called machine cycle):
 The control unit fetches (gets) the instruction from main memory.
 The control unit decodes the instruction (decides what it means: what operation to be
performed on the data and instructions) and directs that the necessary data be moved from
memory to the arithmetic/logic unit.
 The arithmetic/logic unit executes the arithmetic or logical instruction.
 The arithmetic/logic unit stores the result of this operation in memory.
 The control unit eventually directs memory to release the result to an output device or a
secondary storage device.
 DATA STORAGE AND ITS RELATIONSHIP
WITH CPU
 Computers use two types of storage: Primary storage and secondary storage.
 The CPU interacts closely with primary storage.
 Primary storage holds data only temporarily, at the time the computer is executing a
program. Secondary storage holds permanent data.
 Registers are temporary storage areas for instructions or data which offer the
advantage of speed.
 Register are used to quickly accept, store, and transfer data and instructions that are being
used immediately by the CPU, there are various types of Registers those are used for
various purpose.
 EXAMPLE OF REGISTER

 1. Accumulator Register (AR)

 Is used to store the results that are produced by the system.
 2. Memory Data Register (MDR)
 Act like buffer and holds anything that is copied from main memory ready for processor to
use it.
 Hold the information before goes to decoder.
 CHARACTERISTIC / SPECIFICATION OF CPU

1. # of core/ number of core 2. # of threads

3. Processor base frequency 4. Max Turbo Frequency
5. Turbo Boost Technology 6. Hyper Threading Technology
7. Cache 8. Bus Speed
9. Socket 10. CPU Generation
11. Instruction Set/ Data Width 12. Instruction Set Extension
 CHARACTERISTIC / SPECIFICATION OF CPU

 1. # of cores/ number of cores

 Originally, CPUs had a single core.
 That single CPU may have multiple cores or hyper-threading technology but it’s still
only one physical CPU unit inserted into a single CPU socket on the motherboard.
 That meant the physical CPU had a single central processing unit on it.
 To increase performance, manufacturers add additional “cores,” or central processing
units.
 A dual-core CPU has two central processing units, so it appears to the operating
system as two CPUs.
 CHARACTERISTIC / SPECIFICATION OF CPU

 A CPU with two cores, for example, could run two different processes at the same time.
 This speeds up your system, because your computer can do multiple things at once.
 Before hyper-threading and multi-core CPUs came around, people attempted to add
additional processing power to computers by adding additional CPUs.
 This requires a motherboard with multiple CPU sockets. The motherboard also needs
additional hardware to connect those CPU sockets to the RAM and other resources.
 There’s a lot of overhead in this kind of setup.
 There’s additional latency if the CPUs need to communicate with each other, systems
with multiple CPUs consume more power, and the motherboard needs more sockets
and hardware.
 CHARACTERISTIC / SPECIFICATION OF CPU

 The more CPUs or cores a computer has, the more things it can do at once, helping
improve performance on most tasks.
 Most computers now have CPUs with multiple cores.
 even CPUs with multiple cores exist on modern smartphones and tablets.
 CHARACTERISTIC / SPECIFICATION OF CPU

 2. Hyper Threading Technology

 Debuted on desktop CPUs with the Pentium 4 HT back in 2002.
 The Pentium 4’s of the day featured just a single CPU core, so it could really only
perform one task at a time.
 A single physical CPU core with hyper-threading appears as two logical CPUs to an
operating system.
 Hyper-threading allows the two logical CPU cores to share physical execution resources.
 This can speed things up somewhat if one virtual CPU is stalled and waiting, the other
virtual CPU can borrow its execution resources.
 Hyper-threading can help speed your system up, but it’s nowhere near as good as
having actual additional cores.
 CHARACTTERISTIC / SPECIFICATION OF CPU

 While the original consumer processors with hyper-threading only had a single core
that masqueraded as multiple cores, modern Intel CPUs now have both multiple cores
and hyper-threading technology.
 Dual-core CPU with hyper-threading appears as four cores to your operating system,
while your quad-core CPU with hyper-threading appears as eight cores.
 Hyper-threading is no substitute for additional cores, but a dual-core CPU with hyper-
threading should perform better than a dual-core CPU without hyper-threading.
 CHARACTTERISTIC / SPECIFICATION OF CPU

 3. # of threads
 When a command is performed, CPU begins the fetch, decode, and execution process
to achieve that command.
 The thread is the sequence of instructions that tell your computer what it has to do to
perform that command.
 Threads refer to the highest level of code executed by a processor which is a small
sequence of programmed instructions.
 So with many threads, your CPU can handle several tasks at the same time.
 The number of threads you have depends on the number of cores in your CPU.
 Each CPU core can have two threads. So a processor with two cores will have four
threads. A processor with eight cores will have 16 threads.
 CHARACTERISTIC / SPECIFICATION OF CPU

 The more cores you have, the more threads you have. The more threads you have, the
better the performance of your system will be.
 Threads are usually managed by a scheduler, which is a standard part of any operating
system.
 CPU CLOCK SPEED

 The frequency refers to the operating speed of the processor. Before multi-core processors,
frequency was the most important performance metric between different CPUs. 
 The speed of a computer's processor chip (technically known as its "clock speed") is
measured in gigahertz (GHz), with the fastest modern processors for example Intel Core i9-
9000 processor currently running up to 5.00 GHz.
 It effectively denotes how many instructions a CPU can handle per second.
 Higher processor speeds become more important is for applications such as video editing,
3D graphics work and (for the majority of "power users") playing computer games! For any
of these applications, within reason the faster the processor the better.
 As assumption, generally, that processor rated at 2.5 GHz is probably faster than the one
rated at 2.3 GHz.
 CHARACTERISTIC / SPECIFICATION OF CPU

 4. Processor base frequency

 The faster a processor runs, the more power it requires and the more heat it generates.
 Take, for example, the Intel® Core™ i7-5820K. It’s a 6-core CPU with a base clock speed
of 3.3 GHz and a Turbo Boost speed of 3.6 GHz.
 Under normal conditions, the processor will run at its base speed (3.3GHz) or lower
than the base speed.

 5. Max Turbo frequency

 But when heavy applications are used or do multitasking the processor can increase
the frequency up to 3.6 GHz.
 CHARACTERISTIC / SPECIFICATION OF CPU

 6. Turbo Boost Technology

 Intel® calls this technology as Turbo Boost while AMD calls it Turbo Core.
 These Turbo modes are essentially over-clocks, but user don’t choose the speed; the system does.
 When the computer realizes that it needs more clock cycles (say, when you’re trying to render a
video), then it will crosscheck the need for speed with its temperature.
 If it’s cool enough, that means there’s thermal overhead for it to over-clock, at which point it will
bring itself up to the boost speed.
 How long it lasts depends both on how long the system feels it needs to boost, and also whether
or not it continues to be reasonably cool.
 But it’s worth noting that that top clock speed is for one processor. If a user are running a
program that only uses a single processor, then you’ll get that full boost. But if you’re using all
available cores (six, in the case of the 5820K), they don’t all boost to that maximum speed. One
core would hit 3.6, but all six might only go up to 3.4 GHz when Turbo Boost is activated.
 CHARACTERISTIC / SPECIFICATION OF CPU

 7. Cache
 The Processor Cache is memory that store data (code, commands etc.).
 It is used with the processor to facilitate the access of data from the system's main
memory or RAM. 
 CPU caches are small pools of memory that store information the CPU is most likely to
need next.
 The goal of the cache system is to ensure that the CPU has the next bit of data it will
need already loaded into cache by the time it goes looking for it (also called a cache
hit).
 Processor Cache reduces the average time to access memory.
 The processor cache typically consists of two levels, which are the L1 cache and the L2
cache.
 CHARACTERISTIC / SPECIFICATION OF CPU

 6. Cache
 The L1 cache is directly accessed by the computer's processor and holds data that the
processor needs to execute instructions.
 The L2 cache pulls information from the system's main memory, which is then
accessed by the L1 cache.
 Processor Cache is much faster than RAM so provides better responsiveness if a
computer has more cache.
 It is a data storage section of the CPU that next set of instructions and data that is
currently needed.
 The more Processor Cache the computer has (512 KB is better than 256 KB), the more
data you could have in the cache for faster processing.
 Both L1 and L2 are parts of the CPU now. 
 CHARACTERISTIC / SPECIFICATION OF CPU

 8. Bus Speed
 The term "bus speed" refers to how quickly the system bus can move data from one
computer component to the other.
 The faster the bus, the more data it can move within a given amount of time.
 The CPU itself needs data to process; the bus job is to get that data to the CPU.
 The bus does not increase or decrease the CPU's speed, but handles data that flows in
and out of the device, which plays a key role in how well the CPU performs.
 CHARACTERISTIC / SPECIFICATION OF CPU

 8. Bus Speed
 An insufficient bus speed could leave a computer's CPU hanging as it waits for more
information to process.
 This creates a "bottleneck" as one part of the computer slows down performance for
another part of the system.
 If the bus is too slow, the CPU will waste a substantial amount of cycles and the
computer user would perceive this as slower performance.
 A motherboard that has a sufficient or excessive bus speed for the CPU will offer the
optimal performance speed.
 If the bus is fast enough, the CPU will consistently have new data to process ready to
go when it completes a cycle.
 FRONT SIDE BUS

 Front side bus (FSB) speed is a measure of how fast a microprocessor communicates
with the computer's main circuit board (or "motherboard") into which it is physically
connected.
 Again, the higher the measure the better for overall performance, with FSB speeds
currently ranging from 533MHz (still perfectly sufficient for the vast majority of
applications) up to 1600Mhz.
 CHARACTERISTIC / SPECIFICATION OF CPU

 9. Socket
 CHARACTERISTIC / SPECIFICATION OF CPU

 9. Socket
 The socket is the physical interface a processor connects to.
 In the case of an LGA socket it consists of a series of pins which correspond to flat
connectors on the bottom of the processor.
 Sockets are always located on a computer’s motherboard. They can’t be upgraded
without changing the motherboard entirely.
 There are different sockets depending on what generation CPU is supported.
 If a situation should occur where the CPU and socket aren't compatible, the best case
scenario is that the component won't physically be able to connect with the socket,
while the worst case may be irreparable damage to either system part.
 CHARACTERISTIC / SPECIFICATION OF CPU

 9. Socket
 Depending on the configuration of pins, certain sockets may support multiple
processor generations.
 An example would be the current LGA 1151 socket for Intel, which supports both sixth-
and seventh-gen CPUs.
 LGA 1151 is the latest Intel socket design as of 2015.
 The design supports six different chipsets, from lowest power to highest: H110, B150,
Q150, H170, Q170, and the most performance-oriented, Z170. 
 CHARACTERISTIC / SPECIFICATION OF CPU

 10. CPU Generation

 The misconception - Many people think that Core i3, i5 and i7 are the processor
generations. These are models or brands of processors from Intel.
 The term Generation is loosely applied to Intel processors to mean new and significant
developments in processor architecture or functions.
 All the major processor models released by Intel - Pentium (1, 2, 3, 4), Celeron, Pentium
M and Celeron M for mobile devices, Pentium Dual Core, Core Solo, Core Duo, Core 2
Duo, Core 2 Quad, Core i3, i5, i7.
 The concept of generations mainly comes after the released of Core i series.
 Intel processor generations is simply have the enhanced feature set and speed than the
previous generations.
 CHARACTERISTIC / SPECIFICATION OF CPU

 10. Instruction Set/ Data Width

 The instruction set, also called ISA (instruction set architecture), is part of a computer
that pertains to programming, which is basically machine language.
 The instruction set provides commands to the processor, to tell it what it needs to do. 
 Examples of instruction set:
 ADD - Add two numbers together.
 COMPARE - Compare numbers.
 IN - Input information from a device, e.g., keyboard.
 LOAD - Load information from RAM to the CPU.
 OUT - Output information to device, e.g., monitor.
 STORE - Store information to RAM.
 CHARACTERISTIC / SPECIFICATION OF CPU

 10. Instruction Set/ Data Width

 An instruction set can be built into the hardware of the processor, or it can be emulated
in software, using an interpreter.
 The hardware design is more efficient and faster for running programs than the
emulated software version.
 An example of an instruction set are x86 and x64.
 x86 (or x86 architecture) has long been a common way to refer to the family of
processors ending in 86, Intel's most successful line of processors. The “x” in x86
denotes ISA version.
 The first was the 8086, and many people will remember the 286, 386 and 486
processors in early PCs from the mid-1980s to 90s.
 All are 32-bit, which is why x86 has become interchangeable with 32-bit.
 CHARACTERISTIC / SPECIFICATION OF CPU

 10. Instruction Set/ Data Width

 32-bit is shorthand for a 32-bit number.
 This number contains 32 bits (binary digits) which are either 0 or 1.
 And example could be 10101010101010101010101010101010.
 A 32-bit processor is - by definition - capable of dealing with instructions and
referencing memory locations of 32-bits. 
 Each digit in the number can be only 1 or 0, the total number of combinations is 2^32,
which is 4,294,967,295.
 And 4.29 billion memory locations (each storing one byte of data) equate to 4GB,
which is why a 32-bit processor can access a maximum of 4GB of memory without
some workarounds in software to address more.
 CHARACTERISTIC / SPECIFICATION OF CPU

 10. Instruction Set/ Data Width

 32-bit processors are perfectly capable of handling a limited amount of RAM (in
Windows, 4GB or less).
 4GB is the maximum usable memory the 32-bit version can handle.
 However, 4GB isn't really enough these days.
 It might be fine for basic tasks, but if you want to run multiple programs, have 35 tabs
open in various web browsers or open 30 high-resolution photos for editing at once,
4GB isn't going to cut it.
 CHARACTERISTIC / SPECIFICATION OF CPU

 10. Instruction Set/ Data Width

 X64 is merely shorthand for 64-bit.
 A 64-bit processor is capable of storing more computational values, including memory
addresses, which means it’s able to access over four billion times the physical memory
of a 32-bit processor. That’s just as big as it sounds.
 A 64-bit processor is more capable than a 32-bit processor, because it can handle more
data at once.
 Applications and video games with high performance demands already take advantage
of the increase in available memory.
 This is especially useful in programs that can store a lot of information for immediate
access, like image-editing software that opens multiple large files at the same time.
 CHARACTERISTIC / SPECIFICATION OF CPU

 11. Instruction Set Extension

 As the complexity of computation problems grow over time, the demand for high-
speed processors is also increasing accordingly.
 One key to achieving faster performance demanded is by giving a system the ability to
perform parallel executions, which will enable the system to produce higher
throughput and rapid operation.
 An extension instruction set has been introduced to Intel, AMD, ARM, and some other
CPUs.
 This new instruction set is built alongside their default instruction set and has a
purpose of accelerating execution on its current arithmetic operation.
 CHARACTERISTIC / SPECIFICATION OF CPU

 11. Instruction Set Extension

 Focusing mainly on the data streamlining, this instruction set uses wider registries to
pack more data on a single batch for further execution.
 Hence, data parallelism (and higher throughput) is achieved.
 This extension instruction set is modelled after the SIMD (Single Instruction Multiple
Data).
 SIMD (Single Instruction Multiple Data) is a type of operation that processes multiple
data at once on a single arithmetic unit.
 Below is a list of SIMD instruction set available for each of CPU brand:
 CHARACTERISTIC / SPECIFICATION OF CPU

 11. Instruction Set Extension

 SSE (Streaming SIMD Entension) can hold twice more data, hence twice the
throughput.