Distance Vector Routing (DVR)

N1

N5 N2
3

4 6

2
N4 N3

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 Distance Vector Routing (DVR) Dest. Dist. Next

N1

N2
Dest. Dist. Next
N1 N3

N1 N4
1
N2 N5

N3
N5 N2
N4 3 Dest. Dist. Next

N5
N1

4 6 N2

N3

N4
Dest. Dist. Next 2 N5
N4 N3

N1 Dest. Dist. Next

N2
N1
N3
N2
N4
N3
N5
N4

N5

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 Distance Vector Routing (DVR) Dest. Dist. Next

N1 0 N1

N2
Dest. Dist. Next
N1 N3

N1 N4
1
N2 N5

N3
N5 N2
N4 3 Dest. Dist. Next

N5
N1

4 6 N2

N3

N4
Dest. Dist. Next 2 N5
N4 N3

N1 Dest. Dist. Next

N2
N1
N3
N2
N4
N3
N5
N4

N5

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 Distance Vector Routing (DVR) Dest. Dist. Next

N1 0 N1
N2 1 N2
Dest. Dist. Next
N1 N3
N1 N4
1
N2 N5
N3
N5 N2
N4 3 Dest. Dist. Next
N5
N1
4 6 N2
N3
N4
Dest. Dist. Next 2 N5
N4 N3

N1 Dest. Dist. Next

N2
N1
N3
N2
N4
N3
N5
N4
N5
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 Distance Vector Routing (DVR) Dest. Dist. Next

N1 0 N1

N2 1 N2
Dest. Dist. Next
N1 N3 ∞ --

N1 N4
1
N2 N5
N3
N5 N2
N4 3 Dest. Dist. Next

N5
N1

4 6 N2

N3

N4
Dest. Dist. Next 2 N5
N4 N3

N1 Dest. Dist. Next

N2
N1
N3
N2
N4
N3
N5
N4

N5

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 Distance Vector Routing (DVR) Dest. Dist. Next

N1 0 N1
N2 1 N2
Dest. Dist. Next
N1 N3 ∞ --
N1 N4 ∞ --
1
N2 N5 ∞ --
N3
N5 N2
N4 3 Dest. Dist. Next
N5
N1 1 N1
4 6 N2
N3
N4
Dest. Dist. Next 2 N5
N4 N3

N1 Dest. Dist. Next

N2
N1
N3
N2
N4
N3
N5
N4
N5
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 Distance Vector Routing (DVR) Dest. Dist. Next

N1 0 N1
N2 1 N2
Dest. Dist. Next
N1 N3 ∞ --
N1 N4 ∞ --
1
N2 N5 ∞ --
N3
N5 N2
N4 3 Dest. Dist. Next
N5
N1 1 N1
4 6 N2 0 N2
N3
N4
Dest. Dist. Next 2 N5
N4 N3

N1 Dest. Dist. Next

N2
N1
N3
N2
N4
N3
N5
N4
N5
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 Distance Vector Routing (DVR) Dest. Dist. Next

N1 0 N1
N2 1 N2
Dest. Dist. Next
N1 N3 ∞ --
N1 N4 ∞ --
1
N2 N5 ∞ --
N3
N5 N2
N4 3 Dest. Dist. Next
N5
N1 1 N1
4 6 N2 0 N2
N3 6 N3
N4
Dest. Dist. Next 2 N5
N4 N3

N1 Dest. Dist. Next

N2
N1
N3
N2
N4
N3
N5
N4
N5
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 Distance Vector Routing (DVR) Dest. Dist. Next

N1 0 N1
N2 1 N2
Dest. Dist. Next
N1 N3 ∞ --
N1 N4 ∞ --
1
N2 N5 ∞ --
N3
N5 N2
N4 3 Dest. Dist. Next
N5
N1 1 N1
4 6 N2 0 N2
N3 6 N3
N4 ∞ --
Dest. Dist. Next 2 N5
N4 N3

N1 Dest. Dist. Next

N2
N1
N3
N2
N4
N3
N5
N4
N5
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 Distance Vector Routing (DVR) Dest. Dist. Next

N1 0 N1
N2 1 N2
Dest. Dist. Next
N1 N3 ∞ --
N1 N4 ∞ --
1
N2 N5 ∞ --
N3
N5 N2
N4 3 Dest. Dist. Next
N5
N1 1 N1
4 6 N2 0 N2
N3 6 N3
N4 ∞ --
Dest. Dist. Next 2 N5 3 N5
N4 N3

N1 Dest. Dist. Next

N2
N1
N3
N2
N4
N3
N5
N4
N5
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 Distance Vector Routing (DVR) Dest. Dist. Next

N1 0 N1
N2 1 N2
Dest. Dist. Next
End of table generation N1 N3 ∞ --
N1 ∞ -- N4 ∞ --
1
N2 3 N2 N5 ∞ --
N3 ∞ -- N5 N2
N4 4 N4 3 Dest. Dist. Next
N5 0 N5
N1 1 N1
4 6 N2 0 N2
N3 6 N3
N4 ∞ --
Dest. Dist. Next 2 N5 3 N5
N4 N3

N1 ∞ -- Dest. Dist. Next

N2 ∞ --
N1 ∞ --
N3 2 N3
N2 6 N2
N4 0 N4
N3 0 N3
N5 4 N5
N4 2 N4
N5 ∞ --
Networks and Communications
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 Distance vector algorithm

key idea:
• from time-to-time, each node sends its own distance vector
estimate to neighbors
• when x receives new DV estimate from neighbor, it updates
its own DV using B-F equation:

Dx(y) ← minv{c(x,v) + Dv(y)} for each node y ∊ N

 under minor, natural conditions, the estimate Dx(y) converge to

the actual least cost dx(y)

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 Distance Vector Routing (DVR)
1) Sharing with only neighbor N1 N2 N3
2) Sharing only distance vector 0 1 ∞
1 0 6
∞ 6 0
• At N1 neighbors are only N2
∞ ∞ 2
• At N2 neighbors are only N1, N3, N5
∞ 3 ∞
• At N3 neighbors are only N2, N4
• At N4 neighbors are only N3,N5 N4 N5
• At N5 neighbors are only N2, N4 ∞ ∞
∞ 3

2 ∞
0 4

4 0

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 Distance Vector Routing (DVR)

1) N1  N1
Start of first pass N1

1
At N1 new routing table
N5 N2
3 N2 Dest. Dist. Next

1 N1 0 N1

4 6 0

∞
2 3
N4 N3

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 Distance Vector Routing (DVR)

1) N1  N1 Start of first pass N1

1
2) N1  N2 At N1 new routing table
= N1  N2 and N2  N2 N5 N2
=1+0=1 3 N2 Dest. Dist. Next

1 N1 0 N1
N2 1 N2
4 6 0

∞
2 3
N4 N3

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 Distance Vector Routing (DVR)

1) N1  N1
Start of first pass N1

1
2) N1  N2 At N1 new routing table
= N1  N2 and N2  N2 N5 N2
=1+0=1 3 N2 Dest. Dist. Next

1 N1 0 N1
3) N1  N3 N2 1 N2
6 0
= N1  N2 and N2  N3 4 N3 7 N3
=1+6=7 6

∞
2 3
N4 N3

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 Distance Vector Routing (DVR)

1) N1  N1
Start of first pass N1

1
2) N1  N2 At N1 new routing table
= N1  N2 and N2  N2 N5 N2
=1+0=1 3 N2 Dest. Dist. Next

1 N1 0 N1
3) N1  N3 N2 1 N2
6 0
= N1  N2 and N2  N3 4
N3 7 N3
=1+6=7 6
N4 ∞ --
∞
4) N1  N4 2
N4 N3 3
= N1  N2 and N2  N4
=1+∞=∞

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 Distance Vector Routing (DVR)

1) N1  N1
Start of first pass N1

1
2) N1  N2 At N1 new routing table
= N1  N2 and N2  N2 N5 N2
=1+0=1 3 N2 Dest. Dist. Next

1
3) N1  N3 N1 0 N1
6 0
= N1  N2 and N2  N3 4 N2 1 N2
=1+6=7 6 N3 7 N3
∞ N4 ∞ --
4) N1  N4 2
N4 N3 3 N5 4 N5
= N1  N2 and N2  N4
=1+∞=∞

5) N1  N5
= N1  N2 and N2  N5
=1+3=4

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 Distance Vector Routing (DVR)
1) N5  N1
Start of first pass
either, N5 N2 and N2  N1 N1
=3+1=4
1
Or, N5 N4 and N4  N1
=4+∞=∞
At N5 new routing table
N5 N2
Select minimum cost/distance 3 N2 N4 Dest. Dist. Next

1 ∞
N1 4 N2
4 6 0 ∞
N2
6 2 N3

2 ∞ 0 N4
N4 N3
3 4 N5

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 Distance Vector Routing (DVR)
1) N5  N1
Start of first pass
either, N5 N2 and N2  N1 N1
=3+1=4
1
Or, N5 N4 and N4  N1
=4+∞=∞
At N5 new routing table
N5 N2
Select minimum cost/distance 3 N2 N4 Dest. Dist. Next

1 ∞
2) N5  N2 N1 4 N1
either, N5  N2 and N2  N2 4 6 0 ∞
N2 3 N2
=3+0=3 6 2 N3
Or, N5 N4 and N4  N2
2 ∞ 0
=4+∞=∞ N4 N3
N4

Select minimum cost/distance 3 4 N5

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 Distance Vector Routing (DVR)
1) N5  N1
Start of first pass
either, N5 N2 and N2  N1 N1
=3+1=4
1
Or, N5 N4 and N4  N1
=4+∞=∞
At N5 new routing table
N5 N2
Select minimum cost/distance 3 N2 N4 Dest. Dist. Next

1 ∞
2) N5  N2 N1 4 N1
either, N5  N2 and N2  N2 4 6 0 ∞
N2 3 N2
=3+0=3 6 2 N3 6 N4
Or, N5 N4 and N4  N2
2 ∞ 0
=4+∞=∞ N4 N3
N4

Select minimum cost/distance 3 4 N5

3) N5  N3
either, N5  N2 and N2  N3
=3+6=9
Or, N5 N4 and N4  N3
=4+2=6
Select minimum cost/distance
Networks and Communications
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 Distance Vector Routing (DVR)
1) N5  N1
Start of first pass
either, N5 N2 and N2  N1 N1
=3+1=4
1
Or, N5 N4 and N4  N1
=4+∞=∞
At N5 new routing table
N5 N2
Select minimum cost/distance 3 N2 N4 Dest. Dist. Next

1 ∞
2) N5  N2 N1 4 N1
either, N5  N2 and N2  N2 4 6 0 ∞
N2 3 N2
=3+0=3 6 2 N3 6 N4
Or, N5 N4 and N4  N2
2 ∞ 0
=4+∞=∞ N4 N3
N4 4 N4

Select minimum cost/distance 3 4 N5

3) N5  N3 4) N5  N4
either, N5  N2 and N2  N3 either, N5  N2 and N2  N4
=3+6=9 =3+∞=∞
Or, N5 N4 and N4  N3 Or, N5 N4 and N4  N4
=4+2=6 =4+0=4
Select minimum cost/distance Select minimum cost/distance
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 Distance Vector Routing (DVR)
1) N5  N1
Start of first pass
either, N5 N2 and N2  N1 N1
=3+1=4
1
Or, N5 N4 and N4  N1
=4+∞=∞
At N5 new routing table
N5 N2
Select minimum cost/distance 3 N2 N4 Dest. Dist. Next

1 ∞
2) N5  N2 N1 4 N1
either, N5  N2 and N2  N2 4 6 0 ∞
N2 3 N2
=3+0=3 6 2 N3 6 N4
Or, N5 N4 and N4  N2
2 ∞ 0
=4+∞=∞ N4 N3
N4 4 N4

Select minimum cost/distance 3 4 N5 0 N5

3) N5  N3 4) N5  N4
either, N5  N2 and N2  N4 5) N5  N5
either, N5  N2 and N2  N3
=3+∞=∞ =0
=3+6=9
Or, N5 N4 and N4  N3 Or, N5 N4 and N4  N4
=4+2=6 =4+0=4
Select minimum cost/distance Select minimum cost/distance
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 Distance Vector Routing (DVR)
1) N5  N1
Start of first pass
either, N5 N2 and N2  N1 N1
=3+1=4
1
Or, N5 N4 and N4  N1
=4+∞=∞
At N5 new routing table
N5 N2
Select minimum cost/distance 3 N2 N4 Dest. Dist. Next

1 ∞
2) N5  N2 N1 4 N1
either, N5  N2 and N2  N2 4 6 0 ∞
N2 3 N2
=3+0=3 6 2 N3 6 N4
Or, N5 N4 and N4  N2
2 ∞ 0
=4+∞=∞ N4 N3
N4 4 N4

Select minimum cost/distance 3 4 N5 0 N5

3) N5  N3 4) N5  N4
either, N5  N2 and N2  N4 5) N5  N5
either, N5  N2 and N2  N3
=3+∞=∞ =0
=3+6=9
Or, N5 N4 and N4  N3 Or, N5 N4 and N4  N4
=4+2=6 =4+0=4
Select minimum cost/distance Select minimum cost/distance
Networks and Communications
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 Distance Vector Routing (DVR)
Start of first pass N1

1 At N2 new routing table

N5
N1 N3 N5 Dest. Dist. Next
N2
3 0 ∞ ∞
N1 ? ?
1 6 3
N2 ? ?
4 6
∞ 0 ∞ N3 ? ?
∞ 2 4 N4 ? ?
N4
2 ∞ ∞ 0 N5 ? ?
N3

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 Distance Vector Routing (DVR)
Start of first pass N1

1 At N2 new routing table

N5
N1 N3 N5 Dest. Dist. Next
N2
3 0 ∞ ∞
N1 1 N1
1 6 3
N2 0 N2
4 6
∞ 0 ∞ N3 6 N3
∞ 2 4 N4 7 N5
N4
2 ∞ ∞ 0 N5 3 N5
N3

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 Distance Vector Routing (DVR)
Dest. Dist. Next

Dest. Dist. Next N1 0 N1

End of first pass N1
N2 1 N2
N1 4 N2
1 N3 7 N2
N2 3 N2
N4 ∞ --
N3 6 N4 N5 N2 N5 4 N5
N4 4 N4 3
N5 0 N5 Dest. Dist. Next

4 6 N1 1 N1
N2 0 N2
N3 6 N3
Dest. Dist. Next 2
N4 N3 N4 7 N5
N5 3 N5
N1 ∞ -- Dest. Dist. Next
N2 7 N5
N1 7 N2
N3 2 N3
N2 6 N2
N4 0 N4
N3 0 N3
N5 4 N5
N4 2 N4
N5 6 N4
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 Distance Vector Routing (DVR)
Dest. Dist. Next

Dest. Dist. Next N1 0 N1

End of second pass N1
N2 1 N2
N1 4 N2
1 N3 7 N2
N2 3 N2
N4 8 N2
N3 6 N4 N5 N2 N5 4 N5
N4 4 N4 3
N5 0 N5 Dest. Dist. Next

4 6 N1 1 N1
N2 0 N2
N3 6 N3
Dest. Dist. Next 2
N4 N3 N4 7 N5
N5 3 N5
N1 8 N5 Dest. Dist. Next
N2 7 N5
N1 7 N2
N3 2 N3
N2 6 N2
N4 0 N4
N3 0 N3
N5 4 N5
N4 2 N4
N5 6 N4
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 Distance Vector Routing (DVR)
Dest. Dist. Next

Dest. Dist. Next N1 0 N1

End of Final pass N1
N2 1 N2
N1 4 N2
1 N3 7 N2
N2 3 N2
N4 8 N2
N3 6 N4 N5 N2 N5 4 N5
N4 4 N4 3
N5 0 N5 Dest. Dist. Next

4 6 N1 1 N1
N2 0 N2
N3 6 N3
Dest. Dist. Next 2
N4 N3 N4 7 N5
N5 3 N5
N1 8 N5 Dest. Dist. Next
N2 7 N5
N1 7 N2
N3 2 N3
N2 6 N2
N4 0 N4
N3 0 N3
N5 4 N5
N4 2 N4
N5 6 N4
Networks and Communications
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 Distance Vector Routing (DVR)

Solve yourself up to 2nd pass

6
N3 N4
7 4

N1 2 1 N6
9 8

4 N2 N5 2
10

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 Distance vector algorithm

Bellman-Ford equation (dynamic programming)

let
dx(y) := cost of least-cost path from x to y
then
dx(y) = min
v
{c(x,v) + dv(y) }

cost from neighbor v to destination y

cost to neighbor v

min taken over all neighbors v of x

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 Bellman-Ford example

5 clearly, dv(z) = 5, dx(z) = 3, dw(z) = 3

v 3 w
2 5 B-F equation says:
u 2 1 z
3 du(z) = min { c(u,v) + dv(z),
1 x 2
y c(u,x) + dx(z),
1
c(u,w) + dw(z) }
= min {2 + 5,
1 + 3,
5 + 3} = 4

node achieving minimum is next hop in shortest path, used in

forwarding table
Networks and Communications
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 Distance vector algorithm

• Dx(y) = estimate of least cost from x to y

– x maintains distance vector Dx = [Dx(y): y є N ]
• node x:
– knows cost to each neighbor v: c(x,v)
– maintains its neighbors’ distance vectors. For
each neighbor v, x maintains
Dv = [Dv(y): y є N ]

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 Distance vector algorithm

iterative, asynchronous: each each node:

local iteration caused by:
• local link cost change wait for (change in local link
• DV update message from cost or msg from neighbor)
neighbor
distributed: recompute estimates
• each node notifies
neighbors only when its
if DV to any dest has changed,
DV changes
notify neighbors
– neighbors then notify their
neighbors if necessary

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 Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)}
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
node x cost to cost to
table x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3

from
y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1
from

z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0

node y cost to
table x y z y
2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞
x z
from

y 2 0 1 7
z ∞∞ ∞

node z cost to
table x y z
x ∞∞ ∞
from

y ∞∞ ∞
z 7 1 0
Networks and Communications
time
07/22/2021 35
 Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)}
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
node x cost to cost to cost to
table x y z x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x 0 2 3

from
y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1
from

y 2 0 1

from
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0
node y cost to cost to cost to
table x y z x y z x y z y
2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x z
from

y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1 7
from

y 2 0 1

from
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0

node z cost to cost to cost to

table x y z x y z x y z
x ∞∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3
from

y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1
from
from

y ∞∞ ∞
z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0 z 3 1 0
Networks and Communications
time
07/22/2021 36
 Distance vector: link cost changes
link cost changes:
 node detects local link cost change 1
y
 updates routing info, recalculates 4 1
distance vector x z
50
 if DV changes, notify neighbors

“good t0 : y detects link-cost change, updates its DV, informs its

news neighbors.
travels t1 : z receives update from y, updates its table, computes new
fast”
least cost to x , sends its neighbors its DV.

t2 : y receives z’s update, updates its distance table. y’s least

costs do not change, so y does not send a message to z.

Networks and Communications

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 Distance vector: link cost changes
link cost changes:
 node detects local link cost change 60
y
 bad news travels slow - “count to 4 1
infinity” problem! x z
50
 44 iterations before algorithm
stabilizes: see text

poisoned reverse:
 If Z routes through Y to get to X :

 Z tells Y its (Z’s) distance to X is infinite (so Y

won’t route to X via Z)
 will this completely solve count to infinity problem?

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 Count to Infinity Problem

1 1 1
D C B A

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 Count to Infinity Problem

1 1 1
D C B A

∞ ∞ 1 Pass 1

Networks and Communications

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 Count to Infinity Problem

1 1 1
D C B A

∞ ∞ 1 Pass 1

∞ 2 1 Pass 2

Networks and Communications

07/22/2021 41
 Count to Infinity Problem

1 1 1
D C B A

∞ ∞ 1 Pass 1

∞ 2 1 Pass 2

3 2 1 Pass 3

Networks and Communications

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 Count to Infinity Problem

1 1 1
D C B A

∞ ∞ 1 Pass 1

∞ 2 1 Pass 2

3 2 1 Pass 3

3 2 1 Pass 4

Networks and Communications

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 Count to Infinity Problem

1 1 1
D C B A

∞ ∞ 1 Pass 1

∞ 2 1 Pass 2

3 2 1 Pass 3

3 2 1 Pass 4
• • • •
• • • •
• • • •
3 2 1 Pass n

Networks and Communications

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 Count to Infinity Problem

1 1 1
D C B A

∞ ∞ 1 Pass 1

∞ 2 1 Pass 2

3 2 1 Pass 3

3 2 1 Pass 4
• • • •
• • • •
• • • •
3 2 1 Pass n

Networks and Communications

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 Count to Infinity Problem

1 1 1
D C B A

3 2 1 Pass 6

3 2 ∞ Pass 7

Pass 8

Pass 9

Pass 10

Pass 11

Networks and Communications

07/22/2021 46
 Count to Infinity Problem

1 1 1
D C B A

3 2 1 Pass 6

3 2 ∞ Pass 7

Pass 8

Pass 9

Pass 10

Pass 11

Networks and Communications

07/22/2021 47
 Count to Infinity Problem

1 1 1
D C B A

3 2 1 Pass 6

3 2 ∞ Pass 7

Pass 8

Pass 9

Pass 10

Pass 11

Networks and Communications

07/22/2021 48
 Count to Infinity Problem

1 1 1
D C B A

3 2 1 Pass 6

3 2 ∞ Pass 7

4 Pass 8

Pass 9

Pass 10

Pass 11

Networks and Communications

07/22/2021 49
 Count to Infinity Problem

1 1 1
D C B A

3 2 1 Pass 6

3 2 ∞ Pass 7

4 Pass 8

Pass 9

Pass 10

Pass 11

Networks and Communications

07/22/2021 50
 Count to Infinity Problem

1 1 1
D C B A

3 2 1 Pass 6

3 2 ∞ Pass 7

3 4 Pass 8

Pass 9

Pass 10

Pass 11

Networks and Communications

07/22/2021 51
 Count to Infinity Problem

1 1 1
D C B A

3 2 1 Pass 6

3 2 ∞ Pass 7

3 4 Pass 8

Pass 9

Pass 10

Pass 11

Networks and Communications

07/22/2021 52
 Count to Infinity Problem

1 1 1
D C B A

3 2 1 Pass 6

3 2 ∞ Pass 7

3 4 3 Pass 8

Pass 9

Pass 10

Pass 11

Networks and Communications

07/22/2021 53
 Count to Infinity Problem

1 1 1
D C B A

3 2 1 Pass 6

3 2 ∞ Pass 7

3 4 3 Pass 8

Pass 9

Pass 10

Pass 11

Networks and Communications

07/22/2021 54
 Count to Infinity Problem

1 1 1
D C B A

3 2 1 Pass 6

3 2 ∞ Pass 7

3 4 3 Pass 8

4 Pass 9

Pass 10

Pass 11

Networks and Communications

07/22/2021 55
 Count to Infinity Problem

1 1 1
D C B A

3 2 1 Pass 6

3 2 ∞ Pass 7

3 4 3 Pass 8

4 Pass 9

Pass 10

Pass 11

Networks and Communications

07/22/2021 56
 Count to Infinity Problem

1 1 1
D C B A

3 2 1 Pass 6

3 2 ∞ Pass 7

3 4 3 Pass 8

5 4 Pass 9

Pass 10

Pass 11

Networks and Communications

07/22/2021 57
 Count to Infinity Problem

1 1 1
D C B A

3 2 1 Pass 6

3 2 ∞ Pass 7

3 4 3 Pass 8

5 4 Pass 9

Pass 10

Pass 11

Networks and Communications

07/22/2021 58
 Count to Infinity Problem

1 1 1
D C B A

3 2 1 Pass 6

3 2 ∞ Pass 7

3 4 3 Pass 8

5 4 5 Pass 9

Pass 10

Pass 11

Networks and Communications

07/22/2021 59
 Count to Infinity Problem

1 1 1
D C B A

3 2 1 Pass 6

3 2 ∞ Pass 7

3 4 3 Pass 8

5 4 5 Pass 9

Pass 10

Pass 11

Networks and Communications

07/22/2021 60
 Count to Infinity Problem

1 1 1
D C B A

3 2 1 Pass 6

3 2 ∞ Pass 7

3 4 3 Pass 8

5 4 5 Pass 9

6 Pass 10

Pass 11

Networks and Communications

07/22/2021 61
 Count to Infinity Problem

1 1 1
D C B A

3 2 1 Pass 6

3 2 ∞ Pass 7

3 4 3 Pass 8

5 4 5 Pass 9

5 6 Pass 10

Pass 11

Networks and Communications

07/22/2021 62
 Count to Infinity Problem

1 1 1
D C B A

3 2 1 Pass 6

3 2 ∞ Pass 7

3 4 3 Pass 8

5 4 5 Pass 9

5 6 Pass 10

Pass 11

Networks and Communications

07/22/2021 63
 Count to Infinity Problem

1 1 1
D C B A

3 2 1 Pass 6

3 2 ∞ Pass 7

3 4 3 Pass 8

5 4 5 Pass 9

5 6 5 Pass 10

Pass 11

Networks and Communications

07/22/2021 64
 Count to Infinity Problem

1 1 1
D C B A

3 2 1 Pass 6

3 2 ∞ Pass 7

3 4 3 Pass 8

5 4 5 Pass 9

5 6 5 Pass 10

6 Pass 11

Networks and Communications

07/22/2021 65
 Count to Infinity Problem

1 1 1
D C B A

3 2 1 Pass 6

3 2 ∞ Pass 7

3 4 3 Pass 8

5 4 5 Pass 9

5 6 5 Pass 10

6 Pass 11

Networks and Communications

07/22/2021 66
 Count to Infinity Problem

1 1 1
D C B A

3 2 1 Pass 6

3 2 ∞ Pass 7

3 4 3 Pass 8

5 4 5 Pass 9

5 6 5 Pass 10

7 6 Pass 11

Networks and Communications

07/22/2021 67
 Count to Infinity Problem

1 1 1
D C B A

3 2 1 Pass 6

3 2 ∞ Pass 7

3 4 3 Pass 8

5 4 5 Pass 9

5 6 5 Pass 10

7 6 Pass 11

Networks and Communications

07/22/2021 68
 Count to Infinity Problem

1 1 1
D C B A

3 2 1 Pass 6

3 2 ∞ Pass 7

3 4 3 Pass 8

5 4 5 Pass 9

5 6 5 Pass 10

7 6 7 Pass 11

Networks and Communications

07/22/2021 69
 Count to Infinity Problem

1 1 1
D C B A

3 2 1 Pass 6

3 2 ∞ Pass 7

3 4 3 Pass 8

5 4 5 Pass 9

5 6 5 Pass 10

7 6 7 Pass 11
• • • •
• • • •
• •
Networks and Communications
• •
07/22/2021 Pass n 70
 Count to Infinity Problem

1 1 1
D C B A

3 2 1 Pass 6

3 2 ∞ Pass 7

3 4 3 Pass 8

5 4 5 Pass 9

5 6 5 Pass 10

7 6 7 Pass 11
• • • •
• • • •
• •
Networks and Communications
• •
07/22/2021 Pass n 71