Carbon Compounds In Cells
Chapter 3
Producers Capture Carbon
Using photosynthesis, plants and
other producers turn carbon dioxide and
water into carbon-based compounds
Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide
• Researchers have studied
concentration of CO2 in air since the
1950s
• Concentration shifts with season
– Declines in spring and summer when
producers take up CO2 for photosynthesis
CO2 and Global Warming
• Seasonal swings in CO2 increasing
• Spring decline starting earlier
• Temperatures in lower atmosphere
increasing
• Warming may be promoting increased
photosynthesis
Humans and Global Warming
• Fossil fuels are rich in carbon
• Use of fossil fuels releases CO2 into
atmosphere
• Increased CO2 may contribute to global
warming
Organic Compounds
Hydrogen and other elements
covalently bonded to carbon
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic Acids
Carbon’s Bonding Behavior
• Outer shell of
carbon has 4
electrons; can hold
8
• Each carbon atom
can form covalent
bonds with up to
four atoms
Bonding Arrangements
• Carbon atoms can
form chains or rings
• Other atoms project
from the carbon
backbone
Functional Groups
• Atoms or clusters of atoms that are
covalently bonded to carbon backbone
• Give organic compounds their different
properties
Examples of Functional
Groups
Hydroxyl group - OH
Amino group - NH3+
Carboxyl group - COOH
Phosphate group - PO3-
Sulfhydryl group - SH
Types of Reactions
Functional group transfer
Electron transfer
Rearrangement
Condensation
Cleavage
Condensation Reactions
• Form polymers from subunits
• Enzymes remove -OH from one
molecule, H from another, form bond
between two molecules
• Discarded atoms can join to form water
CONDENSATION
enzyme action at functional groups
Fig. 3.4a, p. 37
Hydrolysis
• A type of cleavage reaction
• Breaks polymers into smaller units
• Enzymes split molecules into two or
more parts
• An -OH group and an H atom derived
from water are attached at exposed
sites
HYDROLYSIS
enzyme action at functional groups
Fig. 3.4b, p. 37
Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides
(simple sugars)
Oligosaccharides
(short-chain carbohydrates)
Polysaccharides
(complex carbohydrates)
Monosaccharides
• Simplest carbohydrates
• Most are sweet tasting, water soluble
• Most have 5- or 6-carbon backbone
Glucose (6 C) Fructose (6 C)
Ribose (5 C)Deoxyribose (5 C)
Two Monosaccharides
glucose fructose
Disaccharides
glucose fructose
• Type of
oligosaccharide
• Two
monosaccharides
covalently bonded + H2 O
• Formed by
sucrose
condensation reaction
Polysaccharides
• Straight or branched chains of many
sugar monomers
• Most common are composed entirely of
glucose
– Cellulose
– Starch (such as amylose)
– Glycogen
Cellulose & Starch
• Differ in bonding patterns between
monomers
• Cellulose - tough, indigestible, structural
material in plants
• Starch - easily digested, storage form in
plants
Cellulose and Starch
Glycogen
• Sugar storage form in animals
• Large stores in muscle and liver cells
• When blood sugar decreases, liver cells
degrade glycogen, release glucose
Chitin
• Polysaccharide
• Nitrogen-containing groups attached to
glucose monomers
• Structural material for hard parts of
invertebrates, cell walls of many fungi
Lipids
• Most include fatty acids
– Fats
– Phospholipids
– Waxes
• Sterols and their derivatives have no
fatty acids
• Tend to be insoluble in water
Fatty Acids
• Carboxyl group (-COOH) at one end
• Carbon backbone (up to 36 C atoms)
– Saturated - Single bonds between carbons
– Unsaturated - One or more double bonds
Three Fatty Acids
stearic acid oleic acid linolenic acid
Fats
• Fatty acid(s)
attached to
glycerol
• Triglycerides
are most
common
Phospholipids
• Main components of cell
membranes
Sterols and Derivatives
• No fatty acids
• Rigid backbone of four
fused-together carbon
rings
• Cholesterol - most
common type in
animals
Waxes
• Long-chain fatty acids linked to
long chain alcohols or carbon
rings
• Firm consistency, repel water
• Important in water-proofing
Amino Acid Structure
carboxyl
group
amino
group
R group
Properties of Amino Acids
• Determined by the “R group”
• Amino acids may be:
– Non-polar
– Uncharged, polar
– Positively charged, polar
– Negatively charged, polar
Protein Synthesis
• Protein is a chain of amino acids linked
by peptide bonds
• Peptide bond
– Type of covalent bond
– Links amino group of one amino acid with
carboxyl group of next
– Forms through condensation reaction
Primary Structure
• Sequence of amino acids
• Unique for each protein
• Two linked amino acids = dipeptide
• Three or more = polypeptide
• Backbone of polypeptide has N atoms:
-N-C-C-N-C-C-N-C-C-N-
Protein Shapes
• Fibrous proteins
– Polypeptide chains arranged as strands or
sheets
• Globular proteins
– Polypeptide chains folded into compact,
rounded shapes
Primary Structure
& Protein Shape
• Primary structure influences shape in
two main ways:
– Allows hydrogen bonds to form between
different amino acids along length of chain
– Puts R groups in positions that allow them
to interact
Secondary Structure
• Hydrogen bonds form between different
parts of polypeptide chain
• These bonds give rise to coiled or
extended pattern
• Helix or pleated sheet
Examples of Secondary
Structure
Tertiary Structure
heme group
Folding as a
result
of interactions
between R
groups
coiled and twisted polypeptide
chain of one globin molecule
Quaternary Structure
Some proteins
are made up of
more than one
polypeptide
chain
Hemoglobin
Polypeptides With Attached
Organic Compounds
• Lipoproteins
– Proteins combined with cholesterol,
triglycerides, phospholipids
• Glycoproteins
– Proteins combined with oligosaccharides
Denaturation
• Disruption of three-dimensional shape
• Breakage of weak bonds
• Causes of denaturation:
– pH
– Temperature
• Destroying protein shape disrupts
function
A Permanent Wave
different
bridges hair wrapped bridges
broken around cuticles form
Nucleotide Structure
• Sugar
– Ribose or deoxyribose
• At least one phosphate group
• Base
– Nitrogen-containing
– Single or double ring structure
Nucleotide Functions
• Energy carriers
• Coenzymes
• Chemical messengers
• Building blocks for
nucleic acids
ATP - A Nucleotide
base
three phosphate groups
sugar
Nucleic Acids
Cytosine Adenine
• Composed of nucleotides
• Single- or double-stranded
• Sugar-phosphate backbone
DNA
• Double-stranded
• Consists of four
types of
nucleotides
• A bound to T
• C bound to G
RNA
• Usually single strands
• Four types of nucleotides
• Unlike DNA, contains the base uracil in
place of thymine
• Three types are key players in protein
synthesis
Natural Toxins
• Normal metabolic products of one
species that can harm or kill a different
species
• Natural pesticides
– Compounds from tobacco
– Compounds from chrysanthemum
Synthetic Toxins
atrazine DDT
malathion
Negative Effects of Pesticides
• May be toxic to predators that help fight
pests
• May be active for weeks to years
• Can be accidentally inhaled, ingested,
or absorbed by humans
• Can cause rashes, headaches, allergic
reactions
