The Sentence

L.G. Alexander – Chapter 1

 What is a sentence?
• A sentence is a complete unit of meaning. It contains a group of words and expresses a complete thought.
• When we speak, our sentences may be extremely involved or even unfinished, yet we can still convey our meaning
through intonation, gesture, facial expression, etc. When we write, these devices are not available, so sentences
have to be carefully structured and punctuated. A written sentence must begin with a capital letter and end with a
full stop (.), a question mark (?) or an exclamation mark (!).
• A sentence can take any one of four forms
 a statement “The shops close at 7 tonight.”
 a question “Do the shops close at 7 tonight?”
 a command “Shut the door!”
 an exclamation “What a slow tram this is!”
• A sentence which contains one clause is called a simple sentence. Example: “Stephen apologized at once”.
• Or it may contain more than one clause, in which case it is either a compound sentence. Example: “Stephen
realized his mistake and (he) apologized at once”.
• or a complex sentence. Example: “When he realized his mistake Stephen apologized at once”.
The basic word order in a sentence that is not a question or a command is usually:

Subject group Verb group (predicate)

Subject Verb Object Adverbials (manner, place, time)

 I bought a hat yesterday.

 The children ran home
 The taxi driver shouted at me angrily
 We ate our meal in silence
 The car stopped suddenly
 A young girl walked confidently across the room.
 The simple sentence
The smallest sentence-unit is the simple sentence A simple sentence normally has one finite verb. It has a
subject and a predicate.

subject group verb group (predicate)

One of our aircraft is missing
The old building opposite our school is being pulled down

Five simple sentence patterns

1) subject + verb “My head aches.”

2) subject + verb + complement “Frank is clever”.
3) subject + verb + direct object “My sister enjoyed the play”.
4) subject + verb + indirect object + direct object “The firm gave Sam a watch”.
5) subject + verb + object + complement “They made Sam redundant'chairman”.
 Sentence patterns: definitions of key terms
 A direct object refers to the person or thing affected by the action of the verb. It comes immediately after a
transitive verb. For example:
* Please don´t annoy me!
* Veronica threw the ball over the wall.
 An indirect object usually refers to the person who 'benefits' from the action expressed in the verb
someone you give something to, or buy something for. It comes immediately after a verb. For example:
* Throw me the ball!
* Buy your father a present!
 A complement follows the verb be and verbs related to be, such as seem, which cannot be followed by an
object. A complement (e g adjective, noun, pronoun) completes the sense of an utterance by telling us
something about the subject. For example, the words following is tell us something about Frank.
* Frank is clever.
* Frank is an architect.
 A transitive verb is followed by an object. A simple test is to put Who(m)? or What? before the question-
form of the verb If we get an answer, the verb is transitive. For example:

Wh- question-form object

I met Jim this morning Who(m) did you meet? Jim
I m reading a book What are you reading? A book
 An intransitive verb is not followed by an object and can never be used in the passive. Some
intransitive verbs consist of more than one part e.g touch down.
* My head aches.
* The plane touched down

Some verbs, like enjoy, can only be used transitively and must always be followed by an object, others, like
ache, are always intransitive Verbs like open can be used transitively or intransitively.
- verb + object (transitive). E.g. Someone opened the door.
- verb without object (intransitive). E.g. The door opened.
 The compound sentence
We often need to join ideas. One way we can do this is to link simple sentences to form compound sentences.
This linking is achieved by any of the following:
- a semi-colon:
We fished all day, we didn´t catch a thing.
- a semi-colon, followed by a connecting adverb:
We fished all day, however, we didn't catch a thing.
- a co-ordinating conjunction (e.g. and, but, so yet) often preceded by a comma:
We fished all day but (we) didn´t catch a thing.

In a compound sentence, there is no single main clause with subordinate clauses depending on it: all the clauses
are of equal importance and can stand on their own, though of course they follow a logical order as required by
the context. We often refer to clauses in a compound sentence as co-ordinate main clauses.

The word order of the simple sentence is generally retained in the compound sentence:

subject verb object conjunction subject verb complement

Jimmy fell off his bike, but (he) was unhurt
The co-ordinating conjunctions which can be used to form compound sentences are: and. And then, but, for
nor, or so, yet, either or neither nor , not only but (also/as well/too). These can be used for the purposes of
addition (and), contrast (but, yet), choice (or), reason (for), continuation (and then) and consequence or result
(so). However, a single conjunction like and can serve a variety of purposes to express:
- addition: We were talking and laughing (= in addition to)
- result: He fell heavily and broke his arm (= so)
- condition: Weed the garden and I'll pay you £5 (= If...then)
- sequence: He finished lunch and went shopping (= then)
- contrast: Tom's 15 and still sucks his thumb (= despite this)

The use of co-ordinating conjunctions

When the subject is the same in all parts of the sentence, it is usual not to repeat it. We do not usually put a
comma in front of and, but we generally use one in front of other conjunctions:
1. Addition/sequence: 'and'; 'both...and'; 'not only...but...(too/as well)'; 'not only...but (also)...'; 'and then'
• He washed the car. He polished it.
• He washed the car and polished it.
• He not only washed the car, but polished it (too/as well)
• He washed the car and then polished it.
2. Contrast: 'but'; yet'
• He washed the car. He didn't polish it.
• He washed the car but didn't polish it.
• She sold her house. She can't help regretting it.
• She sold her house, but/yet (she) can't help regretting it.
3. Alternatives: either...or...'; 'neither...nor...'
• He speaks French Or perhaps he understands it.
• He either speaks French, or understands it (I'm not sure which)
• He doesn't speak French. He doesn't understand it.
• He neither speaks French, nor understands it.
4. Result: 'so'
• He couldn´t find his pen. He wrote in pencil.
• He couldn´t find his pen so he wrote in pencil.
(The subject is usually repeated after so)
5. Cause: 'for'
• We rarely stay in hotels. We can´t afford it.
• We rarely stay in hotels for we can't afford it.
Forgives the reason for something that has already been stated Unlike because, it cannot begin a sentence.
The subject must be repeated after for. This use of for is more usual in the written language.
6. Linking simple sentences by commas, etc.
More than two simple sentences can be joined by commas with only one conjunction which is used before the
final clause. The use of a comma before and is optional here:
• I found a bucket put it in the smk() and turned the tap on.
• I took off my coat searched all my pockets but couldn´t find my key.

Sometimes subject and verb can be omitted. In such cases, a sentence is simple, not compound.
• The hotel was cheap but clean.
• Does the price include breakfast only or dinner as well?
A second question can be avoided by the use of or not
• Does the price include breakfast or not? (= or doesn't it?)
 The complex sentence
Many sentences, especially in written language, are complex. They can be formed by linking simple sentences together,
but the elements in a complex sentence (unlike those of a compound sentence) are not of equal importance. There is
always one independent (or 'main') clause and one or more dependent (or 'subordinate') elements. If removed from a
sentence, a main clause can often stand on its own.
Complex sentences can be formed in two ways:
1 by joining subordinate clauses to the main clause with conjunctions
* The alarm was raised (main clause) as soon as the fire was discovered (subordinate clause)
* If you´re not good at figures (subordinate clause) it is pointless to apply for a job in a bank (main clause)
2 by using infinitive or participle constructions. These are non-finite and are phrases rather than clauses, but they form
part of complex (not simple) sentences because they can be re-expressed as clauses which are subordinate to the main
clause.
* To get into university you have to pass a number of examinations (= If you want to get into university )
* Seeing the door open, the stranger entered the house (= When he saw the door open )
Many different constructions can be present in a complex sentence
(a) Free trade agreements are always threatened (main clause)
(b) when individual countries protect their own markets
(subordinate clause dependent on (a))
(c) by imposing duties on imported goods
(participle construction dependent on (b))
(d) to encourage their own industries
(infinitive construction dependent on (c))
The subject of the main clause must be replaced by a pronoun in a subordinate clause if a reference is made to it
* The racing car went out of control before it hit the barrier.
A pronoun can occur in a subordinate clause before the subject is mentioned This is not possible with co-ordinate
clauses.
* When she got on the tram Mrs Tomkins realized she had made a dreadful mistake.
Co-ordinate and subordinate clauses can combine in one sentence.
* The racing car went out of control and hit the barrier several times before it came to a stop on a grassy
bank.

The five simple sentence patterns can be combined in an endless variety of ways Subordinate clauses can be
classified under three headings:
- noun clauses “He told me that the match had been cancelled”.
- relative (or adjectival clauses) “Holiday resorts which are very crowded are not very pleasant”.
- adverbial clauses “However hard I try I can t remember people´s names”.
The complex sentence: noun clauses

Noun clauses derived from statements

Noun clauses derived from statements are usually that- clauses (sometimes what -clauses), though the
conjunction that is often omitted. Look at the following statement:
* Money doesn´t grow on trees.
By putting that in front of a statement, we turn it into a subordinate noun clause which can be joined to another
clause. As such, it will do the same work as a noun and can be used as follows.

Noun clause as the subject of a verb

* Money doesn´t grow on trees. This should be obvious.
That money doesn't grow on trees should be obvious.
We tend to avoid this construction, preferring to begin with It, followed by be seem, etc
* It is obvious (that) money doesn't grow on trees.
Such clauses are not objects, but are 'in apposition' to the 'preparatory subject' it. That cannot be omitted at the
beginning of a sentence, but can be left out after many adjectives and a few nouns such as (it's) a pity a shame.
Noun clause as the object of a verb
That is often omitted before a noun clause which is the object of a verb, especially in informal style.
* Everybody knows (that) money doesn't grow on trees.
After many verbs (e.g believe, know, think) the use of that is optional.
After some verbs (e.g answer, imply) that is generally required.
That is also usual after 'reporting verbs', such as assure inform, which require an indirect object.
That is usually obligatory in longer sentences, especially when the f/iaf-clause is separated from the verb.
* The dealer told me how much he was prepared to pay for my car and that I could have the money without delay.
A that-clause cannot follow a preposition.
* He boasted about his success = He boasted that he was successful
However, a preposition is not dropped before a noun clause that begins with a question-word
* He boasted about how successful he was.

Noun clauses after 'the fact that', etc.

By using expressions like the fact that and the idea that we can avoid the awkwardness of beginning a sentence with that.
* The fact that his proposal makes sense should be recognized.
* The idea that everyone should be required to vote by law is something I don t agree with.
His proposal makes sense. This should be recognized. These expressions can be used after verbs such as to face
* We must face the fact that we might lose our deposit.
The fact that also follows prepositions and prepositional phrases like because of, in view of, on account of, owing to, due to, in spite of,
despite and notwithstanding (formal)
* His love of literature was due to the fact that his mother read poetry to him when he was a child
* In spite of/Despite the fact that hotel prices have risen sharply the number of tourists is as great as ever
The complex sentence: relative pronouns and relative clauses

How to identify a relative clause

Compare:
• Crowded holiday resorts are not very pleasant.
• Holiday resorts which are crowded are not very pleasant.
The word crowded in the first sentence is an adjective which are crowded is a clause (it has a finite verb are).
The clause is doing exactly the same work as the adjective it is describing the holiday resorts (or qualifying the noun
holiday resorts). So we can call it an adjectival clause or (more usually) a relative clause because it relates to the noun, in
this case by means of the word which. Relative clauses (like adjectives) can describe persons things and events.

Form of relative pronouns in relative clauses

Relative pronouns as subject:
People: He is the man who (or that) lives next door
Things: This is the photo which (or that) shows my house
Possession: He is the man whose car was stolen
Relative pronouns as object:
People: He is the man {who/whom/that) I met
People: He is the man ( - ) I gave the money to
Things: This is the photo (which/that) I took
Things: This is the pan { - ) I boiled the milk in
Possession: It was an agreement the details of which could not be altered
The complex sentence: adverbial clauses

How to identify an adverbial clause

Compare:
• I try hard, but I can never remember people´s names.
• However hard I try I can never remember people´s names.
Hard is an adverb, however hard I try is an adverbial (or adverb) clause it is telling us something about (or 'modifying')
can never remember.
Adverbs can often be identified by asking and answering the questions When? Where? How? Why?, etc and adverbial
clauses can be identified in the same way.
Time: Tell him as soon as he arrives (When?)
Place: You can sit where you like (Where?)
Manner: He spoke as if he meant business (How?)
Reason: He went to bed because he felt ill (Why?)
 The complex sentence: participle constructions

Form of participles
present perfect past
active finding having found -
passive being found having been found found

Joining sentences with participles

Simple sentences can be combined into one sentence that contains a main clause + a participle or an infinitive
construction.
Participle constructions are generally more typical of formal style than of informal, though they can easily occur in
both.
simple sentences. He walked out of the room. He slammed the door behind him
compound sentence He walked out of the room and slammed the door behind him
participle construction He walked out of the room slamming the door behind him
simple sentences You want to order a vehicle You have to pay a deposit
complex sentence if you want to order a vehicle you have to pay a deposit
infinitive construction To order a vehicle you have to pay a deposit
participle construction When ordering a vehicle you have to pay a deposit