Chapter 05

Lecture Outline
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 Introduction
• There are 50 trillion cells of 200 different cell types

• Four broad categories of tissues

– Epithelial tissue
– Connective tissue
– Nervous tissue
– Muscular tissue
• Organ—structure with discrete boundaries that is
composed of two or more tissue types

• Histology (microscopic anatomy)—the study of

tissues and how they are arranged into organs

5-2
 The Study of Tissues
• Expected Learning Outcomes
– Name the four primary classes into which all adult
tissues are classified.
– Name the three embryonic germ layers and some
adult tissues derived from each.
– Visualize the three-dimensional shape of a structure
from a two-dimensional tissue section.

5-3
 The Primary Tissue Classes
• Tissue—a group of similar cells and cell products
working together to perform a specific role in an organ
• The four primary tissues (epithelial, connective,
nervous, and muscular) differ from each other in:
– Types and functions of their cells
– Characteristics of the matrix (extracellular material)
– Relative amount of space occupied by cells versus matrix
• Matrix (extracellular material) is composed of:
– Fibrous proteins
– Clear gel called ground substance
• Also known as tissue fluid, extracellular fluid (ECF), interstitial
fluid, or tissue gel

5-4
 Embryonic Tissues

• A fertilized egg becomes an embryo with layers

• Three primary germ layers
– Ectoderm (outer)
• Gives rise to epidermis and nervous system
– Endoderm (inner)
• Gives rise to mucous membrane lining digestive and
respiratory tracts, digestive glands, among other things
– Mesoderm (middle) becomes gelatinous tissue called
mesenchyme
• Wispy collagen fibers and fibroblasts in gel matrix
• Gives rise to muscle, bone, blood

5-5
 Interpreting Tissue Sections
• Understanding histology requires awareness of
how specimens are prepared
• Histologists preserve, slice and section tissues
– Fixative prevents decay (formalin)
– Histological sections: tissue is sliced into thin
sections one or two cells thick
– Stains: tissue is mounted on slides and artificially
colored with histological stain
• Stains bind to different cellular components
• Sectioning reduces three-dimensional structure to
two-dimensional slice
5-6
 Interpreting Tissue Sections
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• Sectioning a cell
with a centrally
located nucleus

• Some slices miss

the cell nucleus

• In some slices, the

cell and nucleus
appear smaller

(a)
Figure 5.1a 5-7
 Interpreting Tissue Sections
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• Curved and coiled

ducts might not
look continuous
when viewed in two
dimensions

(b) (c)
Figure 5.1b,c 5-8
 Interpreting Tissue Sections
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Longitudinal sections
• Longitudinal section (l.s.)
– Tissue cut on its long axis

• Cross section (c.s. or x.s.)

or transverse section (t.s.)
Cross sections – Tissue cut perpendicular to long
axis of organ

• Oblique section
Oblique sections
– Tissue cut at angle between
cross and longitudinal sections

Figure 5.2 5-9

 Interpreting Tissue Sections

• Smear—tissue is rubbed across a slide

– Example: blood

• Spread— some membranes and cobwebby

tissues are laid out on a slide
– Example: areolar tissue

5-10
 Epithelial Tissue

• Expected Learning Outcomes

– Describe the properties that distinguish
epithelium from other tissue classes.
– List and classify eight types of epithelium,
distinguish them from each other, and state
where each type can be found in the body.
– Explain how the structural differences between
epithelia relate to their functional differences.
– Visually recognize each epithelial type from
specimens or photographs.
5-11
 Epithelial Tissue
• Epithelia are sheets of closely adhering cells,
one or more cells thick
• Covers body surfaces and lines body
cavities
• Upper surface usually exposed to the
environment or an internal space in the body
• Constitutes most glands
• Avascular (does not have blood vessels)
– Usually nourished by underlying connective tissue

5-12
 Epithelial Tissue
• Functions:
– Protect deeper tissues from injury and infection
– Produce and release chemical secretions
– Excrete wastes
– Absorb chemicals including nutrients
– Selectively filter substances
– Sense stimuli

5-13
 Epithelial Tissue
• Epithelial cells are very close together
• Have a high rate of mitosis
• Basement membrane—layer between an epithelium
and underlying connective tissue
– Collagen, glycoproteins, other protein-carbohydrate
complexes
– Anchors the epithelium to the connective tissue below it
• Basal surface—surface of epithelial cell facing the
basement membrane
• Apical surface—surface of epithelial cell that faces
away from the basement membrane

5-14
 Epithelial Tissue
• Simple epithelia • Stratified epithelia
– Contain one layer of cells – Contain more than one layer
– Named by shape of cells – Named by shape of apical cells
– All cells touch basement – Some cells rest on top of others
membrane and do not touch basement
membrane
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(a) Classes of
epithelium

Pseudostratified
Simple Stratified
columnar

(b) Cell
shapes

Squamous Cuboidal Columnar

5-15
Figure 5.3
 Simple Epithelia
• Four types on epithelia with only one layer of
cells
– Simple squamous (thin, scaly cells)
– Simple cuboidal (square or round cells)
– Simple columnar (tall, narrow cells)
– Pseudostratified columnar
• Falsely appears stratified, as some cells taller than others
• Every cell reaches the basement membrane (but not all cells
reach the free surface)
• Goblet cells—wineglass-shaped mucus-secreting
cells in simple columnar and pseudostratified
epithelia
5-16
 Simple Epithelia

Figure 5.4a,b
• Simple squamous epithelium
• Single row of thin cells
• Permits rapid diffusion or transport of substances
• Secretes serous fluid
• Locations: alveoli, glomeruli, endothelium, and serosa 5-17
 Simple Epithelia

Figure 5.5a, b
• Simple cuboidal epithelium
– Single layer of square or round cells
– Absorption and secretion, mucus production and movement
– Locations: liver, thyroid, mammary and salivary glands,
bronchioles, and kidney tubules 5-18
 Simple Epithelia

• Simple columnar epithelium Figure 5.6a,b

– Single row of tall, narrow cells
– Oval nuclei in basal half of cell
– Brush border of microvilli, ciliated in some organs, may possess
goblet cells
– Absorption and secretion; secretion of mucus
5-19
– Locations: lining of GI tract, uterus, kidney, and uterine tubes
 Pseudostratified Epithelium

Figure 5.7a,b
• Pseudostratified epithelium
– Looks multilayered, but all cells touch basement membrane
– Nuclei at several layers
– Has cilia and goblet cells
– Secretes and propels mucus
– Locations: respiratory tract and portions of male urethra 5-20
 Stratified Epithelia
• Range from 2 to 20 or more layers of cells
• Some cells rest directly on others
– Only the deepest layer attaches to basement membrane
• Three stratified epithelia are named for the
shapes of their apical surface cells
– Stratified squamous
– Stratified cuboidal
– Stratified columnar (rare)
• Fourth type
– Transitional epithelium

5-21
 Stratified Epithelia
• Stratified squamous is most widespread epithelium
in the body
• Deepest layers undergo continuous mitosis
– Daughter cells push toward the surface and become
flatter as they migrate upward
– Finally die and flake off—exfoliation or desquamation
• Two kinds of stratified squamous epithelia
– Keratinized—found on skin surface, abrasion resistant
– Nonkeratinized—lacks surface layer of dead cells

5-22
 Stratified Epithelia

Figure 5.8a,b
• Keratinized stratified squamous
– Multiple cell layers; cells become flat and scaly toward surface
– Resists abrasion; retards water loss through skin; resists
penetration by pathogenic organisms
– Locations: epidermis; palms and soles heavily keratinized
5-23
 Stratified Epithelia

Figure 5.9a, b
• Nonkeratinized stratified squamous
– Same as keratinized epithelium without surface layer of dead cells
– Resists abrasion and penetration of pathogens
– Locations: tongue, oral mucosa, esophagus, and vagina
5-24
 Stratified Epithelia

Figure 5.10a,b
• Stratified cuboidal epithelium
– Two or more cell layers; surface cells square or round
– Secretes sweat; produces sperm, produces ovarian hormones
– Locations: sweat gland ducts; ovarian follicles and seminiferous
tubules 5-25
 Stratified Epithelia

Figure 5.11a,b
• Transitional epithelium
– Multilayered epithelium with surface cells that change from round
to flat when stretched
– Allows for filling of urinary tract
– Locations: ureter and bladder 5-26
 Connective Tissue
• Expected Learning Outcomes
– Describe the properties that most connective tissues
have in common.
– Discuss the types of cells found in connective tissue.
– Explain what the matrix of a connective tissue is and
describe its components.
– Name and classify 10 types of connective tissue,
describe their cellular components and matrix, and
explain what distinguishes them from each other.
– Visually recognize each connective tissue type from
specimens or photographs.
5-27
 Connective Tissue: Overview
• Connective tissue—a diverse, abundant type of
tissue in which cells occupy less space than matrix
– Most cells are not in direct contact with each other
• Supports, connects and protects organs
• Highly variable vascularity
– Loose connective tissues have many blood vessels
– Cartilage has few or no blood vessels

5-28
 Connective Tissue: Overview
• Functions of connective tissues:
– Binding of organs—tendons and ligaments
– Support—bones and cartilage
– Physical protection—cranium, ribs, sternum
– Immune protection—white blood cells attack foreign
invaders
– Movement—bones provide lever system
– Storage—fat, calcium, phosphorus
– Heat production—metabolism of brown fat in infants
– Transport—blood

5-29
 Fibrous Connective Tissue
• Cells of fibrous connective tissue
– Fibroblasts produce fibers and ground substance of matrix
– Macrophages phagocytize foreign material and activate
immune system when they sense foreign matter (antigens)
• Arise from monocytes
– Leukocytes, or white blood cells
• Neutrophils attack bacteria
• Lymphocytes react against bacteria, toxins, and other foreign
agents
– Plasma cells synthesize antibodies (proteins)
• Arise from lymphocytes
– Mast cells often found alongside blood vessels
• Secrete heparin to inhibit clotting
• Secrete histamine to dilate blood vessels
– Adipocytes store triglycerides (fat molecules)
5-30
 Fibrous Connective Tissue
• Fibers of fibrous connective tissue
– Collagenous fibers
• Collagen is most abundant of the body’s proteins—25%
• Tough, flexible, and stretch-resisant
• Tendons, ligaments, and deep layer of the skin are mostly collagen
• Less visible in matrix of cartilage and bone

– Reticular fibers
• Thin collagen fibers coated with glycoprotein
• Form framework of spleen and lymph nodes

– Elastic fibers
• Thinner than collagenous fibers
• Branch and rejoin each other
• Made of protein called elastin
• Allows stretch and recoil
5-31
 Fibrous Connective Tissue
• Ground substance of fibrous connective tissue
– Usually has a gelatinous to rubbery consistency
– Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)
• Long polysaccharides composed of amino sugars and uronic acid
(disaccharides)
• Regulate water and electrolyte balance of tissues
• Chondroitin sulfate—most abundant GAG
– Responsible for stiffness of cartilage
• Other examples: heparin and hyaluronic acid
– Proteoglycans
• Gigantic molecules (core protein plus GAGs) shaped like bottle
brushes
• Form gravy-like colloids that hold tissues together
– Adhesive glycoproteins
• Protein-carbohydrate complexes
• Bind components of a tissue together 5-32
 Types of Fibrous Connective Tissue
• Loose connective tissue
– Much gel-like ground substance
between cells
– Types
• Areolar
• Reticular
• Dense connective tissue
– Fibers fill spaces between cells
– Types vary in fiber orientation
• Dense regular connective
tissue
• Dense irregular connective Figure 5.13
tissue
5-33
 Types of Fibrous Connective Tissue
• Areolar tissue—loosely organized fibers, abundant blood
vessels, and a lot of seemingly empty space
• Possess all six cell types
• Fibers run in random directions
– Mostly collagenous, but elastic and reticular also present

• Found in tissue sections from almost every part of the

body
– Surrounds blood vessels and nerves
• Nearly every epithelium rests on a layer of areolar tissue
– Blood vessels provide nutrition to epithelium and waste removal
– Ready supply of infection-fighting leukocytes that move about freely in
areolar tissue

5-34
 Types of Fibrous Connective Tissue

Figure 5.14a, b
• Areolar tissue
– Loosely organized fibers, abundant blood vessels
– Underlies epithelia, in serous membranes, between muscles,
passageways for nerves and blood vessels
5-35
 Types of Fibrous Connective Tissue

Figure 5.15a, b
• Reticular tissue
– Mesh of reticular fibers and fibroblasts
– Forms supportive stroma (framework) for lymphatic organs
– Found in lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, and bone marrow
5-36
 Types of Fibrous Connective Tissue

Figure 5.16a, b
• Dense regular connective tissue
– Densely packed, parallel collagen fibers
– Compressed fibroblast nuclei
– Elastic tissue forms wavy sheets in some locations
– Tendons attach muscles to bones and ligaments hold bones
together 5-37
 Types of Fibrous Connective Tissue

Figure 5.17a,b
• Dense irregular connective tissue
– Densely packed, randomly arranged, collagen fibers and few
visible cells
– Withstands unpredictable stresses
– Locations: deeper layer of skin; capsules around organs 5-38
 Adipose Tissue
• Adipose tissue (fat)—tissue in which adipocytes are the
dominant cell type

• Space between adipocytes is occupied by areolar

tissue, reticular tissue, and blood capillaries

• Fat is the body’s primary energy reservoir

– The quantity of stored triglyceride and the number of
adipocytes are quite stable in a person
– Fat is recycled continuously
• New triglyceride synthesized while old molecules hydrolyzed and
released to blood
5-39
 Adipose Tissue
• Two types of fat: white and brown

• White fat is main type (only fat in adults)

– Specimens resemble chicken wire
– Provides thermal insulation
– Cushions organs such as eyeballs, kidneys
– Contributes to body contours—female breasts and hips

• Brown fat—in fetuses, infants, children

– Color comes from blood vessels and mitochondrial enzymes
– Functions as a heat-generating tissue

5-40
 Adipose Tissue

Figure 5.18a,b

• Empty-looking cells with thin margins; nucleus pressed

against cell membrane
• Energy storage, insulation, cushioning
– Subcutaneous fat and organ packing
– Brown fat of juveniles produces heat
5-41
 Cartilage
• Stiff connective tissue with flexible matrix
• Gives shape to ear, tip of nose, and larynx
• Chondroblasts—cartilage cells that produce the matrix
that will trap them
• Chondrocytes—cartilage cells that are trapped in
lacunae (cavities)
• Perichondrium—sheath of dense irregular connective
tissue that surrounds elastic and most hyaline cartilage
(not articular cartilage)
– Contains a reserve population of chondroblasts that
contribute to cartilage growth throughout life

5-42
 Cartilage
• No blood vessels
– Diffusion brings nutrients and removes wastes
– Heals slowly
• Matrix rich in GAGs and contains collagen
fibers
• Types of cartilage vary with fiber
composition
– Hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage, and elastic cartilage

5-43
 Cartilage

Figure 5.19a,b
• Hyaline cartilage
– Clear, glassy appearance because of fineness of collagen fibers
• Eases joint movement, holds airway open, moves vocal cords,
growth of juvenile long bones
• Locations: articular cartilage, costal cartilage, trachea, larynx,
fetal skeleton 5-44
 Cartilage

Figure 5.20a,b
• Elastic cartilage
– Cartilage containing abundance of elastic fibers
• Covered with perichondrium
• Provides flexible, elastic support
– Locations: external ear and epiglottis 5-45
 Cartilage

Figure 5.21a,b
• Fibrocartilage
– Cartilage containing large, coarse bundles of collagen fibers
• Resists compression and absorbs shock
– Locations: pubic symphysis, menisci, and intervertebral discs
5-46
 Bone
• Bone (osseous) tissue is a calcified connective tissue
– Bones of the skeleton are organs made of bone tissue,
cartilage, marrow, and other tissue types
• Two forms of osseous tissue
– Spongy bone: porous appearance
• Delicate struts of bone: trabeculae
• Covered by compact bone
• Found in heads of long bones and in middle of flat bones such
as the sternum
– Compact bone: denser, calcified tissue with no visible spaces
• More complex arrangement
• Cells and matrix surround vertically oriented blood vessels in
long bones

5-47
 Bone

Figure 5.22a,b
• Compact bone is arranged in cylinders that surround central
(haversian or osteonic) canals that run longitudinally through
shafts of long bones
– Blood vessels and nerves travel through central canal
• Bone matrix deposited in concentric lamellae
– Onion-like layers around each central canal
5-48
 Bone

• Osteon—central canal and its surrounding lamellae

• Osteocytes—mature bone cells within lacunae
• Canaliculi—delicate canals radiating from each
lacuna to its neighbors, allowing osteocytes to
contact each other
• Periosteum—tough fibrous connective tissue
covering the whole bone

5-49
 Blood
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• Fluid connective tissue
Platelets Neutrophils Lymphocyte Erythrocytes Monocyte

• Transports cells and dissolved

matter from place to place
• Plasma—blood’s ground substance
• Formed elements—cells and cell
fragments
– Erythrocytes—red blood cells
(RBCs): transport O2 and CO2
– Leukocytes—white blood cells
(WBCs): defend against
infection and disease (b)

• Neutrophils, eosinophils, Figure 5.23b

basophils, lymphocytes,
monocytes
– Platelets—cell fragments
involved in clotting 5-50
 Nervous and Muscular Tissues—
Excitable Tissues
• Expected Learning Outcomes
– Explain what distinguishes excitable tissues from
other tissues.
– Name the cell types that compose nervous tissue.
– Identify the major parts of a nerve cell.
– Visually recognize nervous tissue from specimens or
photographs.
– Name the three kinds of muscular tissue and describe
the differences between them.
– Visually identify any type of muscular tissue from
specimens or photographs.
5-51
 Nervous and Muscular Tissues—
Excitable Tissues
• Excitability—ability to respond to stimuli by changing
membrane potential
– Developed to highest degree in nervous and muscular
tissues
• Membrane potential—electrical charge difference
(voltage) that occurs across the cell membrane
• In nerve cells: changes in voltage result in rapid
transmission of signals to other cells
• In muscle cells: changes in voltage result in
contraction, shortening of the cell

5-52
 Nervous Tissue
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• Nervous tissue—specialized
Nuclei of glial cells Axon Neurosoma Dendrites

for communication by
electrical and chemical signals

• Consists of neurons (nerve

cells)
– Detect stimuli
– Respond quickly
– Transmit coded information
rapidly to other cells
(b)
Figure 5.24b
• Neuroglia (glial)
– Protect and assist neurons
– “Housekeepers” of nervous
system
– More numerous than neurons
5-53
 Nervous Tissue
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• Neuron parts Nuclei of glial cells Axon Neurosoma Dendrites

– Neurosoma (cell body)

• Houses nucleus and other
organelles
• Controls protein synthesis
– Dendrites
• Multiple short, branched
processes
• Receive signals from other
cells
• Transmit messages to (b)
neurosoma
Figure 5.24b
– Axon (nerve fiber)
• Sends outgoing signals to
other cells
• Can be more than a meter
long
5-54
 Muscular Tissue
• Muscular tissue—elongated cells that are specialized
to contract in response to stimulation
• Primary job is to exert physical force on other tissues
and organs
• Creates movements involved in body and limb
movement, digestion, waste elimination, breathing,
speech, and blood circulation
• Important source of body heat
• Three types of muscle: skeletal, cardiac, and
smooth

5-55
 Muscular Tissue
• Skeletal muscle
– Made of muscle fibers—long thin cells
– Most skeletal muscles attach to bone
– Contains multiple nuclei adjacent to plasma membrane
– Striations—alternating dark and light bands
– Voluntary—conscious control over skeletal muscles

5-56
Figure 5.25a,b
 Muscular Tissue
• Cardiac muscle
– Limited to the heart
– Myocytes or cardiocytes are branched, shorter than skeletal muscle
fibers
– Contain one centrally located nucleus
– Intercalated discs join cardiocytes end to end
• Provide electrical and mechanical connection
– Striated and involuntary (not under conscious control)

Figure 5.26a,b 5-57

 Muscular Tissue

• Smooth muscle Figure 5.27a,b

– Made of fusiform myocytes lacking striations

• Cells are relatively short and have one central nucleus
– Involuntary function
– Most is visceral muscle—making up parts of walls of
hollow organs 5-58
 Cell Junctions, Glands, and
Membranes
• Expected Learning Outcomes
– Describe the junctions that hold cells and tissues
together.
– Describe or define different types of glands.
– Describe the typical anatomy of a gland.
– Name and compare different modes of glandular
secretion.
– Describe the way tissues are organized to form
the body’s membranes.
– Name and describe the major types of
membranes in the body.
5-59
 Cell Junctions
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Intercellular space

Plasma membrane

Cell-adhesion proteins

(a) Tight junction

Intercellular space

Cell-adhesion
proteins

Plaque
Intermediate
filaments of
cytoskeleton

(b) Desmosome

Proteins

Connexon

Pore

(c) Gap junction Basement membrane (d) Hemidesmosome Figure 5.28

• Cell junctions—connections between two cells

• Most cells are anchored to each other or their matrix
• Cells communicate with each other, resist mechanical stress, and
control what moves through the gaps between them 5-60
 Tight Junctions
• Tight junction—linkage between two adjacent cells by
transmembrane cell-adhesion proteins
– In epithelia, they form a zone that completely encircles each
cell near its apical pole
– Seals off intercellular space, making it difficult for substance to
pass between cells

Figure 5.28a
5-61
 Desmosomes
• Desmosome—patch that holds cells together (like a clothing snap)
• Keeps cells from pulling apart—resist mechanical stress
• Hook-like, J-shaped proteins arise from cytoskeleton
– Anchor cytoskeleton to membrane plaque
– Transmembrane proteins from each cell joined by cell adhesion
proteins
• Hemidesmosomes—half desmosomes that anchor basal cells of an
epithelium to underlying basement membrane
– Epithelium cannot easily peel away from underlying tissues

Figure 5.28b 5-62

 Gap Junctions
• Gap (communicating) junction—formed by ring-like
connexons
– Connexon consists of six transmembrane proteins arranged
like segments of an orange around water-filled pore
– Ions, nutrients, and other small solutes pass between cells
– Located in cardiac and smooth muscle, embryonic tissue

Figure 5.28c 5-63

 Glands
• Gland—cell or organ that secretes substances for
use elsewhere in the body or releases them for
elimination from the body
– Usually composed of epithelial tissue in a connective
tissue framework and capsule
– Secretion—product useful to the body
– Excretion—waste product

5-64
 Endocrine and Exocrine Glands
• Exocrine glands—maintain their contact with
surface of epithelium by way of a duct
– Surfaces can be external (examples: sweat, tear glands) or
internal (examples: pancreas, salivary glands)
• Endocrine glands—have no ducts; secrete
hormones directly into blood
– Hormones: chemical messengers that stimulate cells
elsewhere in the body
– Examples: thyroid, adrenal, and pituitary glands
• Some organs have both endocrine and exocrine
functions
– Examples: liver, gonads, pancreas
5-65
 Endocrine and Exocrine Glands

• Endocrine
glands secrete
hormones into
the blood

• Exocrine
glands secrete
products into a
duct
Figure 5.30a, b 5-66
 Endocrine and Exocrine Glands

• Unicellular glands—found in an epithelium that

is predominantly nonsecretory
–Can be exocrine or endocrine
–Examples: mucus-secreting goblet cells in trachea or
endocrine cells of stomach

5-67
 Exocrine Gland Structure
• Capsule—connective tissue
covering of exocrine gland
– Septa or trabeculae: extensions of
capsule that divide interior of gland
into compartments (lobes and
lobules)
• Stroma—connective tissue
framework of the gland
– Supports and organizes glandular
tissue
• Parenchyma—cells that perform
the tasks of synthesis and
secretion Figure 5.30b, c
– Typically cuboidal or simple columnar
epithelium

5-68
 Exocrine Gland Structure
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Simple coiled tubular Compound acinar Compound tubuloacinar

Example: Sweat gland

Example: Pancreas
Key
Duct Example: Mammary gland
Secretory portion Figure 5.31
• Duct shape: simple (unbranched) vs. compound (branched)
• Gland shape
– Tubular: narrow secretory portion
– Acinar: secretory cells form dilated sac (acinus or alveolus)
– Tubuloacinar: both tubular and acinar portions

5-69
 Types of Secretions
• Serous glands
– Produce thin, watery secretions
• Perspiration, milk, tears, digestive juices
• Mucous glands
– Produce glycoprotein, mucin, which absorbs water to form
mucus
– Goblet cells: unicellular mucous glands
• Mixed glands
– Contain both serous and mucous cell types and produce a
mixture of the two types of secretions
• Cytogenic glands
– Release whole cells (sperm and egg cells)

5-70
 Modes of Secretion
• Secretion modes: merocrine, apocrine, and
holocrine

Figure 5.32 5-71

 Modes of Secretion

• Merocrine secretion (used by

eccrine glands) uses vesicles
that release their secretion by
exocytosis
– Examples: tear glands, pancreas,
gastric glands, and others

Figure 5.32a 5-72

 Modes of Secretion

• Apocrine secretion—lipid
droplet covered by membrane
and cytoplasm buds from cell
surface
– Mode of milk fat secretion by
mammary gland cells
– Also “apocrine” is used to describe
axillary sweat glands even though
they use merocrine secretion mode

Figure 5.32b 5-73

 Modes of Secretion

Figure 5.32c

• Holocrine secretion—cells accumulate a product until they

disintegrate
– Secrete a mixture of cell fragments and synthesized substances
– Examples: oil glands of scalp and skin, and glands of eyelids
5-74
 Membranes
• Membranes may be only epithelial, only connective,
or a mix of epithelial, connective, and muscular
tissues
– Examples of membranes of only connective tissue: dura
mater, synovial membranes, periosteum
– Examples of membranes of only epithelium: anterior
surfaces of cornea and lens of eye
• Cutaneous membrane (the skin)—largest
membrane in the body
– Stratified squamous epithelium (epidermis) resting on a
layer of connective tissue (dermis)
– Relatively dry layer serves protective function
5-75
 Membranes
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Mucous coat

Cilia

Mucin in
Epithelium goblet cell
Ciliated cells of
pseudostratified
epithelium

Basement
Mucous membrane
membrane
(mucosa) Blood vessel

Lamina Collagen fibers

propria

Figure
Fibroblast
Elastic fibers

(a) Muscularis
mucosae
5.33a

• Mucous membrane (mucosa) lines passages that open to the external

environment (example: digestive tract)
– Sublayers: epithelium, lamina propria (areolar tissue), muscularis mucosa (smooth muscle)
– Absorptive, secretory, and protective functions
– Often have mucus producing goblet cells

5-76
 Membranes
• Serous membrane (serosa)—internal
membrane
– Simple squamous epithelium resting on a layer of
areolar tissue
– Produces serous fluid that arises from blood
– Covers organs and lines walls of body cavities
• Endothelium lines blood vessels and heart
• Mesothelium lines body cavities (pericardium, peritoneum,
and pleura)

Figure 5.33b
5-77
 Tissue Growth, Development,
Repair, and Degeneration
• Expected Learning Outcomes
– Name and describe the modes of tissue growth.
– Define adult and embryonic stem cells and their
varied degrees of developmental plasticity.
– Name and describe the ways that a tissue can
change from one type to another.
– Name and describe the modes and causes of tissue
shrinkage and death.
– Name and describe the ways the body repairs
damaged tissues.

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 Tissue Growth
• Tissue growth—increasing the number of cells or
size of existing cells
• Hyperplasia—growth through cell multiplication

• Hypertrophy—enlargement of preexisting cells

– Muscle growth through exercise
– Accumulation of body fat

• Neoplasia—development of a tumor (neoplasm)

– Benign or malignant
– Composed of abnormal, nonfunctional tissue

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 Tissue Development

• Tissues can change types within certain limits

• Differentiation—development of more specialized

form and function by unspecialized tissue
– Example: embryonic mesenchyme becoming muscle

• Metaplasia
– Changing from one type of mature tissue to another
• Simple cuboidal tissue of vagina before puberty changes
to stratified squamous after puberty
• Pseudostratified columnar epithelium of bronchi of
smokers to stratified squamous epithelium
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 Stem Cells

• Stem cells—undifferentiated cells that are not yet

performing any specialized function
– Have potential to differentiate into one or more types of
mature functional cells

• Developmental plasticity—ability of a stem cell to

give rise to a diversity of mature cell types

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 Stem Cells
• Embryonic stem cells
– Totipotent: have potential to develop into any type of fully
differentiated human cell including accessory organs of
pregnancy
• Source—cells of very early embryo
– Pluripotent: can develop into any type of cell in the
embryo (but not accessory organs of pregnancy)
• Source—cells of inner cell mass of embryo (blastocyst)
• Adult stem cells—undifferentiated cells found in
mature organs
– Some are multipotent—able to develop into two or more
cell lines (example: bone marrow stem cells)
– Some are unipotent—produce only one cell type
(example: cells giving rise to sperm)
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 Tissue Repair
• Damaged tissues can be repaired in two ways:
– Regeneration: replacement of dead or damaged
cells by the same type of cell as before
• Restores normal function
• Examples: repair of minor skin or liver injuries
– Fibrosis: replacement of damaged cells with scar
tissue
• Scar holds organs together, but does not restore
function
• Examples: repair of severe cuts and burns, scarring of
lungs in tuberculosis

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 Tissue Repair
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. • Healing of a cut in the skin:
– Severed vessels bleed into cut
– Mast cells and damaged cells
release histamine
– Histamine dilates blood vessels
and makes capillaries more
permeable

• Blood plasma seeps into the

1 Bleeding into the wound
wound carrying:
– Antibodies
– Clotting proteins

Figure 5.34 (1)

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 Tissue Repair
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Blood clot forms

– Knits edges of cut together
– Inhibits spread of pathogens

• Forms scab that temporarily Scab

seals wound and blocks Blood clot

Macrophages
infection Fibroblasts

Leukocytes
• Macrophages phagocytize
and digest tissue debris
2 Scab formation and
macrophage activity

Figure 5.34 (2)

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 Tissue Repair
• New capillaries sprout Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

from nearby vessels

• Deeper portions of clot Scab

become infiltrated by
capillaries and
fibroblasts Macrophages

– Transform into soft mass Fibroblasts

called granulation tissue
Blood
– Macrophages remove the capillary

blood clot Granulation

tissue
– Fibroblasts deposit new
collagen 3 Formation of granulation tissue
– Begins 3–4 days after injury (fibroblastic phase of repair)

and lasts up to 2 weeks Figure 5.34 (3)

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 Tissue Repair
• Epithelial cells around Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

wound multiply and migrate

beneath scab (tissue
regenerates)
• Underlying connective
tissue undergoes fibrosis
– Scar tissue may or may not
show through epithelium Epidermal
regrowth
• Remodeling (maturation) Scar tissue

phase begins several (fibrosis)

weeks after injury and may 4 Epithelial regeneration and connective

last up to 2 years tissue fibrosis (remodeling phase of repair)

Figure 5.34 (4)

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 Tissue Degeneration and Death
• Atrophy—shrinkage of a tissue through loss in cell size or
number
– Senile atrophy through normal aging
– Disuse atrophy from lack of use
• Necrosis—pathological tissue death due to trauma, toxins,
or infections
– Infarction—sudden death of tissue when blood supply is cut off
– Gangrene—tissue necrosis due to insufficient blood supply
(usually involves infection)
• Decubitus ulcer (bed sore or pressure sore)—form of dry
gangrene where continual pressure on skin of immobilized patient
cuts off blood flow
• Dry gangrene: common complication of diabetes
• Wet gangrene: liquefaction of internal organs with infection
• Gas gangrene: usually from infection of soil bacterium that results
in hydrogen bubbles in tissues
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 Tissue Degeneration and Death
• Apoptosis—programmed cell death
– Normal death of cells that have completed their function and
best serve the body by dying and getting out of the way
• Phagocytized by macrophages and other cells
• Billions of cells die by apoptosis
• Every cell has a built-in “suicide program”
– Extracellular suicide signal binds receptor protein in the
plasma membrane called Fas
– Fas activates enzymes: endonuclease chops up DNA and
protease destroys proteins

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 Tissue Engineering

• Tissue engineering—artificial production of

tissues and organs in the lab for implantation in
the human body
– A framework of collagen or biodegradable polyester
fibers is seeded with human cells
– Grown in “bioreactor” (example: inside mouse)
• Supplies nutrients and oxygen to growing tissue

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 Tissue Engineering

• Skin grafts already available

• Research in progress on heart valves, coronary
arteries, bone, liver, tendons
• Human outer ear grown on back of mouse

Figure 5.35
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 The Stem-Cell Controversy
• Recent U.S. Presidents have disagreed on the
morality of stem cell use
• Biologists see many possibilities for the use of
embryonic stem cells in treating disease
– Possibilities include treatments for: parkinsonism, brain cell
loss, diabetes, heart damage, and spinal cord injury
– Most embryonic stem cells are donated by couples using in
vitro fertilization
– Adult stem cells seem limited, as they are hard to harvest
and culture and have narrower developmental potential
• Researchers are trying to induce adult cells to revert to embryonic
levels of developmental plasticity
• There are several technical, ethical, and legal
issues
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