Training of Trainer Programme:

National Certification Scheme for Energy

Auditors and Managers in Pakistan

NEECA : Think-Conservation . . . 1
2
Installed Capacity on Generation Side
The installed capacity of Power Generation (by fuel type) as on June, 2018
is given below:

Installed Capacity, MW
Thermal Power 23,347
Hydro Power 7,139
Renewable 1,637
Nuclear 1,430
Total 33,553

In 2017-18, Pakistan had a peak demand of 26,741MW. About 67.98% of

gross power generation in 2017-18 in Pakistan is from thermal power
plants, of which 44% is from Natural gas and 32.9% from Furnace Oil
based power plant.
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 Efficiency From Generation to End User

4
Line Losses and Voltage Selection

 V=IR

 Power loss = I2R

• Higher the voltage, lesser the current and lesser the power loss

If voltage is raised from 11 kV to 33 kV the voltage drop would be

lowered by a figure of 1/3 and line loss would be lowered by (1/3)2

• Higher voltage can also bring down the conductor sizes on account of
lower currents handled

5
Electricity Billing to Industry
 For the energy kWh consumed
 Maximum demand Charges
 Power factor penalty
 Fuel cost adjustment charges as levied by some utilities are
to adjust the increasing fuel expenses over a base reference value.
 Meter rentals
 Time Of Day (TOD) rates like peak and non-peak hours are also
prevalent in tariff structure provisions of some utilities.

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Electricity Data Analysis
Enlist the source of electricity at any industry or plant

 Collect the electricity bills (incase of electricity imported

from Grid)

 Collect Self-generation related data like log sheet (fuel

consumption, cost of fuel and electricity produced)

 Analysis of utility bill data helps energy manager to

identify ways for electricity bill reduction.

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Analysis of Electricity Bill
Electricity Cost Unit Rate
Months Electricity (kWh) MDI (PKR) (PKR/kWh)
Oct-19 346,600 780 8,288,126 23.91

Nov-19 267,000 680 4,937,637 18.49

Dec-19 302,200 640 5,748,306 19.02

Jan-20 287,400 640 6,575,207 22.88

Feb-20 265,800 620 5,475,040 20.60

Mar-20 197,200 620 3,372,998 17.10

Apr-20 324,400 740 5,316,818 16.39

May-20 414,200 880 6,797,136 16.41

Jun-20 374,800 1000 8,444,662 22.53

Jul-20 427,600 1000 5,241,017 12.26

Total  3,207,200  - 60,196,947 18.77

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MDI Trend in Electricity Bills
Electricity
Months MDI
(kWh)
Oct-19 346,600 780 Check the MDI in the electricity
bills and investigate the reasons if
Nov-19 267,000 680
there is some abnormal increase
Dec-19 302,200 640 in MDI in accordance to
electricity usage and end month
Jan-20 287,400 640
production of the plant.
Feb-20 265,800 620

Mar-20 197,200 620

Apr-20 324,400 740

May-20 414,200 880

Jun-20 374,800 1000

Jul-20 427,600 1000

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Analysis of Electricity (Self Generation)
Diesel Electricity Fuel Cost Fuel Cost Unit Rate
Months
(Liters) (kWh) (PKR/Ltr) (PKR) (PKR/kWh)

Oct-19 8,000 24,820 109.34 874,720 35

Nov-19 6,855 17,360 109.27 749,046 43

Dec-19 7,055 22,030 108.67 766,667 35

Jan-20 7,440 23,245 108.35 806,124 35

Feb-20 4,610 14,275 108.25 499,033 35

Mar-20 4,900 13,375 81.1 397,390 30

Apr-20 2,720 8,535 93.3 253,776 30

May-20 9,290 30,340 81.08 753,233 25

Jun-20 10,995 34,308 82.66 908,847 26

Jul-20 11,475 33,695 89.2 1,023,570 30

Total  73,340 221,983 97.18 7,032,405 32

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Specific Fuel Consumption
Diesel Electricity
Months Liters/kWh
(Liters) (kWh)

Oct-19 8,000 24,820 0.322

Nov-19 6,855 17,360 0.395

Dec-19 7,055 22,030 0.320

Jan-20 7,440 23,245 0.320

“Lower the specific
Feb-20 4,610 14,275 0.323 fuel consumption,
Mar-20 4,900 13,375 0.366 more efficient will be
Apr-20 2,720 8,535 0.319 the engine is”
May-20 9,290 30,340 0.306

Jun-20 10,995 34,308 0.320

Jul-20 11,475 33,695 0.341

Total  73,340 221,983 0.33

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 Maximum Demand (MDI Metering)
Maximum demand is the highest level of electrical demand monitored in a
particular period usually for a month period. Once the value is higher than the
contracted power, the customer will pay a penalty on the electricity bill.

“It is the time integrated demand over the predefined recording cycle”
Recording:

As example, in an industry, if the drawl over a recording cycle of 30 minutes is :

2000 kW for 4 minutes

2500 kW for 12 minutes
1500 kW for 6 minutes
4500 kW for 8 minutes
The MD recorder will be computing MD as:

(2000x4) +(2500 x 12) + (1500 x 6) + (4500 x 8) = 2766.7 kW

30 12
Maximum Demand Control Strategies

 Load Curve Generation

 Rescheduling of Loads
 Storage of Products/in process material/ process utilities
 Shedding of Non-Essential Loads
 Operation of Captive Generation and Diesel Generation Sets

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 Transformer
A transformer is a passive electrical device
that transfers electrical energy from one
circuit to another through the process of
electromagnetic induction. It is most
commonly used to increase (‘step up’) or
decrease (‘step down’) voltage levels
between circuits

Types:
Power transformers : Used in transmission network of higher voltages,
deployed for step-up and step-down transformer application (400 kV, 200 kV,
110 kV, 66 kV, 33kV)

Distribution transformers: Used for lower voltage distribution networks as a

means to end user connectivity. (11kV, 6.6 kV, 3.3 kV, 440V, 230V)

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Working Principle
The working principle of a transformer is very simple. Mutual induction
between two or more windings (also known as coils) allows for electrical
energy to be transferred between circuits.

 Transformers consist of two or more coils that are

electrically insulated, but magnetically linked.

 Primary coil is connected to the power source and

the secondary coil connects to the load.

 The turn’s ratio is the ratio between the number of

turns on the primary to the turns on the secondary

 A transformer can accept energy at one voltage and

deliver it at another voltage

 The secondary voltage is equal to the primary voltage

times the turn’s ratio
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Location of the Transformer

Location of the transformer is very

important as far as distribution loss is
concerned. Transformer receives HT
voltage from the grid and steps it down
to the required voltage. Transformers
should be placed close to the load
centre, considering other features like
optimization needs for centralized
control, operational flexibility etc. This
will bring down the distribution loss in
cables.

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Transformer losses

Transformer losses consist of two parts.

1. No load Losses
No-load loss (also called core loss) is the power consumed to sustain the
magnetic field in the transformer's steel core.

2. Load Losses

Load loss (also called copper loss) is associated with full-load current
flow in the transformer windings. Copper loss is power lost in the
primary and secondary windings of a transformer due to the ohmic
resistance of the windings. Copper loss varies with the square of the load
current.(P=I2R).

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Transformer losses
Typical Transformer Loss for Distribution Transformers (DT’s) above 100 kVA

KVA Rating Voltage Rating No Load Loss (W) Load Loss (W) Impedance %

160 425 3000 5

200 570 3300 5
250 620 3700 5
315 800 4600 5
500 11000/433 1100 6500 5
630 1200 7500 5
1000 1800 11000 5
1600 2400 15500 5
2000 3000 20000 6
630 1450 7500 5
1000 33000/433 2200 11500 5
1600 3000 16000 6.25
2000 3500 21000 6.25
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Transformer losses Calculations
For a given transformer, the manufacturer can supply values for no-load
loss, PNO- LOAD, and load loss, PLOAD. The total transformer loss, PTOTAL, at any
load level can then be calculated from:

PTOTAL = PNO-LOAD+ (% Load/100)2 x PLOAD

Where transformer loading is known, the actual transformers loss at given

load can be computed as:

The efficiency of the transformer varies anywhere between 96 to 99 percent.

The efficiency of the transformers not only depends on the design but also on
the effective operating load. 19
Transformer Loss Calculation
An engineering industry has installed three numbers of 1000kVA transformers for an
electrical load of 1500kVA. The No-load loss and the full load loss of the
transformers were collected from the transformer certificates as 2.8kW and
11.88kW respectively. Estimate the total loss when 3 transformers in parallel
operation and also 2 transformers parallel operation. The transformer losses can also
be obtained from manufacturers test certificate which are available in the plant.

a) Total loss when Two transformers in parallel operation:

No load loss = 2 x 2.8 =5.6
Load Loss = 2 x (750/1000)^2 x 11.88 = 13.36
Total Loss = 5.6 + 13.36 =18.96 kW
 
b) Total loss when Three transformers in parallel operation:
No load loss = 3 x 2.8 = 8.4KW
Load loss = 3 x (500/1000)^2 x 11.88 = 8.91 kW
Total loss = 17.31 kW
Savings by operating 3 transformers in parallel
= 18.96-17.31= 1.65 kWh
= 1.65kWh x 24Hrs x 365 days = 14,454 kWh /year
20
 Power Triangle and Power Factor
Inductive loads require two kinds of power:

• Active power to perform the work

• Reactive power to create and maintain
electro-magnetic fields.

Power Factor = Real Power/Apparent Power

Increasing Power Factor: Decreasing Power Factor:

(Lesser kvar demand) (Greater kvar demand)

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Improving Transformer loading by PF

22
 Impact of PF on Transformer Loading
A small industrial unit has operational load demand 800 kW with the
installed transformer of 1250 kVA.

Case-I:

Power Factor = 0.80

Then
Real power = 800 kW
Apparent Power = 1,000 kVA
Reactive Power = 600 kvar

Transformer Loading = (1000/1250)×100 = 80%

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 Impact of PF on Transformer Loading
A small industrial unit has operational load demand 800 kW with the
installed transformer of 1250 kVA.

Case-II:

Power Factor = 0.95

Then
Real power = 800 kW
Apparent Power = 842 kVA
Reactive Power = 263 kvar
Transformer Loading = (842/1250)×100 = 67%

PF improvement releases system capacity and decreases loading of transformers

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Quantification of Required Capacitors
What amount of kvar required for the system
with average load 800 kW to improve PF from
0.80 to 0.95.

Capacitor rating required = P ( TanPf1 - TanPf2 )

P = Power in kW
Pf1 = Existing (Cos-1 PF1)
Pf2 = Desired (Cos-1 PF2)

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Procedure:

Existing Power Factor = f1 = (Cos-1 PF1) = (Cos-1 0.8) = 36.87

Desired Power Factor = f2 = (Cos-1 PF2) = (Cos-1 0.95) = 18.19

Kvar required = P ( Tanf1 - Tanf2 )

= 800 [Tan(36.87) – Tan(18.19)]

= 800 (0.750 – 0.329)
= 800 (0.421)
= 336.8 kvar

“Hence 340 kvar capacitors are required to improve the power factor
from 0.8 to 0.95 for a system with average load of 800 kW.”

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Required kvar Through PF Table
1. Locate 0.80 (original power factor) in column (1).
2. Read across desired power factor to 0.95 column. We find 0.421 multiplier
3. Multiply 800 (average kW) by 0.421 = 337 kvar.

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 Operational Performance of Capacitor

This can be made by monitoring capacitor

charging current vis- a- vis the rated charging
current. Portable analyzers can be used for
measuring kvar delivered as well as charging
current.

Capacitor Rated Phase-I Phase-II Phase-III Remarks

Rating (kvar) Ampere (A) (A) (A) (A)
50 70 63 60 59 Capacitor working Efficiently
50 70 35 31 29 Replace the capacitor
50 70 60 62 0 Check the connection, HRC fuse
and terminals
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Effect of Capacitors Location on other Loads

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Loss Reduction through PF Improvement
As current flows through the conductors, the conductors getting
heat. This heating is power loss,
Power loss is proportional to current squared to Resistance (P Loss =I2R)
Conductor loss can account for as much as 2- 5% of total load
Capacitors can reduce losses by 1- 2% of the total load

If a facility has
Original PF = 0.82
Desired PF = 0.97
Then
% loss Reduction = 1 – (0.82)2/(0.97)2

= 0.29 % 30
Cost Benefits by PF Improvement

 Reactive component of the network is reduced and also the total

current in the system from the source end
 I2R power losses are reduced in the system because of reduction in
current.
 Reduced kVA (Maximum demand) charges in utility bill
 Reduced distribution losses (KWh) within the plant network
 Better voltage at motor terminals and improved performance of motors
 A high-power factor eliminates penalty charges imposed when
operating with a low power factor
 Investment on system facilities such as transformers, cables,
switchgears etc. for delivering load is reduced.

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Harmonics

32
 Causes of Harmonics
Non-linear loads are the major cause for harmonics generation.

“A load is said to be non-linear when the current it draws does not have the
same waveform as the supply voltage.”

Example: Devices comprising power electronics circuits are non-linear loads.

These are the devices that frequently convert AC to DC. Some devices are as
follows;

 Variable Frequency Drives

 Industrial equipment (welding machines, arc furnaces etc)
 Computers, Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), Solid-state rectifiers
 Electronic process control equipment, PLC’s, etc.
 Electronic lighting ballasts, including light dimmer
 Office equipment (PCs, photocopy machines, fax machines, etc.),
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 Reduced voltage motor controllers
 Total Harmonics Distortion (THD)
• Harmonics are multiples of the
fundamental frequency of an electrical
power system.
• For example, the fundamental
frequency is 50 Hz, then the 5th
harmonic is five times that frequency,
or 250 Hz.

“Total Harmonics Distortion (THD) is

the common measurement of the level
of harmonics distortion present in
power system.”

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 Total Harmonics Distortion Calculations
Formula for calculating the THD for Current:

where I1 is the fundamental frequency current and In is nth harmonic current

component.

Formula for calculating the THD for Voltage:

where V1 is the fundamental frequency voltage and Vn is nth harmonic voltage

component.

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Problems Caused by Harmonics
 Excessive current flows in the distribution system
 Transformer saturation
 Transformer Failures - Inductive Heating
 Circuit Breakers Tripping - Inductive Heating and Overload
 Excessive line losses, conductor Failure - Inductive Heating
 Fuses Blowing for no Apparent Reason - Inductive Heating and
Overload
 Capacitor Failure and electronics equipment failure.
 Power Interference on Voice Communication - Harmonic Noise
 Blinking of Incandescent Lights - Transformer Saturation
 Flickering of Fluorescent Lights - Transformer Saturation
 Motor Failures (overheating)
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Harmonics Mitigation
Solutions
Tuned Harmonic filters consisting of a capacitor bank and reactor in
series are designed and adopted for suppressing harmonics, by providing
low impedance path for harmonic component. The Harmonic filters
connected suitably near the equipment generating harmonics help to
reduce THD to acceptable limits.

Following type of harmonics filters are in use:

1. Passive Harmonic Filter (PHF)

2. Advance Active Filter (AAF)
3. Active Front End based VFDs (AFE)

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Benefits of Harmonics Filter

Benefits of Harmonic Filters

 Improve power factor ratings through harmonic

recombination
 Isolate harmonic currents
 Minimize equipment problems through THD
cancellation
 Reduce wasted energy
 Minimize current carried in plant cables
 Reduction in kVA demand

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Hotspot Identification of Electrical System

39
Genset Performance Evaluation
Through Flue Gas analysis
Performance Analysis of Genset can be performed through flue
gas analysis.

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Genset Performance Evaluation
Through Flue Gas analysis
Case Study:

Flue gas analysis of NG based Genset

Genset Rated Capacity : 1.156 MW

Type of Fuel: Natural Gas

Flue gas analysis was performed by using

Flue Gas Analyzer TESTO-340.

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Parameter Genset
Name of Manufacturer Jenbacher
Model: JGS 320 N-L
Capacity (kW): 1,156
Running Load of Genset (kW): 800
Load Factor (%): 69%
Fuel: NG
Point of Measurement Genset Exhaust
Oxygen - O₂ (%) 8.62%
Carbon Monoxide - CO (mg/m³) 1,010
Nitrogen Oxide - NO (mg/m³) 880
Carbon dioxide - CO₂ (%) 6.97%
Flue Gas Temperature (°C) 503.8
NOx (mg/m³) 924
Combustion efficiency gross (%) 62.5
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) (mg/m3) 0.0
Excess Air (%) 69.4
42
Atmospheric Temperature (OC) 40.4
Standards (PEQs) & Findings

Parameter Genset (PEQS) Standards

Oxygen - O₂ (%) 8.62%
Carbon Monoxide - CO (mg/m³) 1,010 800 mg/m³
Nitrogen Oxide - NO (mg/m³) 880 600 mg/m³
Carbon dioxide - CO₂ (%) 6.97%
Flue Gas Temperature (°C) 503.8
NOx (mg/m³) 924 600 mg/m³
Combustion efficiency gross (%) 62.5%
Excess Air (%) 69.4%

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Recommendations & Saving Potential
• All parameters of Genest are exceeding the recommended PEQS limits.
• Exhaust temperature higher than 500 °C is the clear indication that
genset needs overhauling. It will increase the working efficiency of the
genset.
• Moreover, higher exhaust temperature shows that there is a potential
for heat recovery system.

• Waste Heat Recovery Boiler is the best option in this case to

generate steam that will ultimately reduce the load on inhouse
boiler.

• Moreover, heat exchanger can also be installed at the final exhaust

of WHRB if the temperature is higher than 150 °C.

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Thank You

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