COMPUTER

ORGANIZATION AND
ARCHITECTURE CHAPTER 1
OVERVIEW AND HISTORY OF COMPUTER
ARCHITECTURE
 What is a Computer?

• A computer is used to perform some useful

work and for communication. The work of the
computer can be characterized by an input-
process-output model; a machine that
accepts data (Input Data), performs certain
operations on that data (Process the Data),
and presents the results of those operations
(Output on Screen or Paper).
 Input: keyboard, mouse, scanner, punch cards
 Processing: CPU executes the computer program
 Output: monitor, printer, fax machine
 Storage: hard drive, optical media, flash drive,
magnetic tape
Every operation on input-processing-output
model requires three important
components:

The computer hardware

• Processes data by executing instructions
• Provides input and output
The software
• Instructions executed by the system
The data that is being manipulated
• Fundamental representation of facts and
observations
 
Computer systems have evolved from stand-alone machines into a network computer. Therefore, a fourth component
must be considered:
 

 Communication component
• Sharing data and processing among different
systems
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
EVOLUTION
o Zero Generation
o First Generation
o Second Generation
o Third Generation
o Fourth Generation
o Fifth Generation
 THE 0TH GENERATION (GEN. 0) :
MECHANICAL COMPUTERS
(1642-1945)

 Mechanical calculating machine

 Inventor : Blaise Pascal
 First person to build a working calculating
machine.
 The programming language Pascal is named
after him.
 THE 0TH GENERATION (GEN. 0) :
MECHANICAL COMPUTERS
(1642-1945)

 Mechanical calculating machine - Continued

 The device was built in 1642.
 Could only do addition and subtraction.
 It’s entirely mechanical, using gears and
powered by a hand-operated crank.
 THE 0TH GENERATION (GEN. 0)
Step Reckoner: mechanical calculating machine
 Inventor: Gottfried von Leibniz
 Took Pascal’s invention a step further.
 In 1671, he introduced Step Reckoner, a
mechanical machine that not only can add and
subtract, but also multiply, divide and evaluate
square roots by series of stepped additions.
 He strongly advocated the use of binary
numbering system, which is fundamental in
modern computers’ operation.
 THE 0TH GENERATION (GEN. 0)
Loom
 Inventor : Joseph Marie Jacquard
 Developed in 1801, it used punched cards to
control the pattern woven into cloth. The
program provided by the punched cards
controlled rods that raised and lowered different
threads in the correct sequence to print a
particular pattern.
 In the years to come, variations on Jacquard’s
punched cards would find variety of uses,
including the storing of programs for computers.
Jacquard’s Loom
 THE 0TH GENERATION (GEN. 0)
Difference Engine
 Inventor : Charles Babbage
 Mechanical device - could only subtract
and add, designed to compute tables of
numbers useful for naval navigation.
 Was to run on single algorithm, the
method of finite differences using
Difference Engine
polynomials.
 Built in 1822.
 THE 0TH GENERATION (GEN. 0)
 Analytical Engine
• Inventor : Charles Babbage in 1834.
• Successor of Difference Engine.
• It had FOUR components: the store (memory),
the mill (computation unit), the input section
(punched card reader) and the output section
(punched and printed output).
• Intended to employ several features
subsequently used in modern computers,
including sequential control, branching and
looping.
 THE 0TH GENERATION (GEN. 0)
 Analytical Engine
• General purpose - able to carry out different
instructions/ computations.
• Ada Augusta Byron, the Countess of Lovelace
worked closely with Babbage and developed
many of the fundamental ideas in
programming and program design, including
the concepts of branches and loops.
• Ada was thus the world’s 1st computer
programmer. A modern programming
language Ada® is named in her honor.
Analytical Engine
 THE 0TH GENERATION (GEN. 0)
ABC - Atanasoff and Berry Computer
 Inventor : John V. Atanasoff and Clifford Berry.
 Devised in 1937 to solve physics equations that
Atanasoff was working on that time.
 It was the first binary-based machine.
 Has an arithmetic/logic unit with thirty units that
can do addition/subtraction, a rotating drum
memory that held thirty binary numbers of fifty
digits each, and punched card input.
 THE 0TH GENERATION (GEN. 0)
 ABC - Atanasoff and Berry Computer
• Each punched card held five fifteen-digit
decimal numbers. These numbers were
converted to binary as they entered the
machine.
• Although it has limitations, ABC was an
important path mark that led to later
significant advances in computer design.

The ABC
 THE 1ST GENERATION (GEN. 1) :
VACUUM TUBES (1945 – 1955)
The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Computer)
Inventor : John W. Mauchly and J. Presper
Eckert at The University of Pennsylvania.
Designed and built between 1943 and 1946.
It contained 18,000 vacuum tubes and 1500
relays.
Had 20 registers, each capable of holding a 10-
digit decimal number.
10 feet tall, occupied 1,000 square feet of floor-
space, weighed in at approximately 30 tons
 THE 1ST GENERATION (GEN. 1) :
VACUUM TUBES (1945 – 1955)
The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Computer)
 The system could also provide printed output.
 Programs could not be stored internally but were
hard wired (manually) with external “patch panels”
and toggle switches.
 ENIAC is generally considered as the first all-
electronic digital computer.
 ENIAC led directly to the development of UNIVAC I,
the world’s first commercially available computer in
1951.
THE 1ST GENERATION (GEN. 1)

The ENIAC The UNIVAC I

 THE 1ST GENERATION (GEN. 1)
• The consultant in the ENIAC project, John Von
Neumann, came up with the idea of stored
program.
• Program could be represented in digital form in
the computer’s memory, along with the data.
• His basic design is known as the Von
Neumann Machine. It had 5 basic parts: the
memory, the ALU, the program CU, and the
input and output equipment.
 THE 1ST GENERATION (GEN. 1)
 The EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable
Automatic Computer)
• Developed by Mauchly and Eckert based on
Von Neumann Machine.
• Developed at the University of Pennsylvania.
• EDVAC was completed in 1950. It stored its
instructions electronically, using the binary
system for instruction coding and input. The
EDVAC was one of the first two-stored
program computers.
 THE 1ST GENERATION (GEN. 1)
 The IAS machine.
 Developed by John Von Neumann in 1947 at
the Institute of Advanced Studies in Princeton.
 Completed in 1951 and fully operational in
1952
 The machine was a binary computer with a
40-bit word, storing two 20-bit instructions in
each word.
 THE 1ST GENERATION (GEN. 1)
 The IAS machine.
• The memory was 1024 words. Negative
numbers were represented in "
two's complement" format. Two registers: the
Accumulator (AC) and Multiplier/Quotient
(MQ).
• Importantly, the IAS machine was the first
design to mix programs and data in a single
memory.
 THE 1ST GENERATION (GEN. 1)

 The IAS machine.

 It used about 2300 tubes in its circuitry. The
addition time was 62 microseconds and the
multiplication time was 713 microseconds.
 It was an asynchronous machine, meaning that
there was no central clock regulating the timing
of the instructions. One instruction started
executing when the previous one finished.
THE 1ST GENERATION (GEN. 1)

The IAS
 THE 1ST GENERATION (GEN. 1)
 The EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic
Calculator).
 The machine, having been inspired by John von
Neumann's seminal EDVAC report, was
constructed by Maurice Wilkes and his team at
the University of Cambridge Mathematical
Laboratory in England.
 EDSAC was the world's first practical stored
program electronic computer, although not the
first stored program computer (that honor goes
to the Small-Scale Experimental Machine).
THE 1ST GENERATION (GEN. 1)

The EDSAC
THE 1ST GENERATION (GEN. 1)
 THE 2ND GENERATION :
TRANSISTORS (1955-1965)

 The device that characterized the second

generation computers was the transistors.
 Transistor was invented in Bell Labs in 1948 by
John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William
Shockley.
 Transistors were made of a semi-conducting
material and control the flow of electricity through
the circuits.

30
 THE 2ND GENERATION :
TRANSISTORS (1955-1965)
• Allows computers to become physically smaller, more
powerful, more reliable and even faster than before.
• Transistors were less expansive and smaller, required
less electricity and emitted less heat than the vacuum
tubes.
• Fewer transistors than tubes were required to operate
a computer.
• Transistors were not fragile as vacuum tubes, and
they lasted longer.
 THE 2ND GENERATION (GEN. 2)
The TX-0
 The first transistorized computer built at M.I.T. This
machine was merely intended as a device to test the
much fancier TX-2.
PDP-1
 Manufactured by DEC in 1961. It had 4K of 18-bit
words and a cycle time of 5 microsec. It cost $120,000.
 One of the PDP-1’s many innovations was a visual
display (CRT) and the ability to plot points anywhere
on its 512 x 512 screen.
 A few years later DEC introduced the PDP-8 which
uses a single bus, the omnibus.
 THE 2ND GENERATION (GEN. 2)
 IBM 7090
 The performance was double that of PDP-1. It
was the fastest computer in the world at that time.
Cost millions of dollars. Later IBM introduced the
7094. Both 7090 and 7094 marked the end of
ENIAC type machines.
 CDC 6600
 Introduced by CDC. A highly parallel machine. It
had several functional units for and all of them
could run in parallel.
 The Burroughs B5000
 Programmed in Algol 60, a forerunner of Pascal.
 THE 3RD GENERATION :
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (1965-1980)

 Signified the beginning of third generation

computers.
 Integrated circuits (ICs) were single, complete
electronic semiconductor circuits contained on
pieces of silicon, sometimes called chips.
 ICs could be manufactured by machinery, which
ultimately resulted in a lower cost.
 The concept of IC was developed by Jack Kilby.
 THE 3RD GENERATION :
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (1965-1980)

 Memory technology improved.

 By 1969, as many as 1,000 transistors could be built
on a chip of silicon.
 Magnetic disks were improved and were used more
for storage.
 Monitors and keyboards were introduced for data
input and output.
 THE 3RD GENERATION :
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (1965-1980)

 In this generation Remote processing, Time-sharing,

Real-time, Multiprogramming Operating System
were used.
 High level language (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL,
PASCAL PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used
during this generation.
 Advantages of ICs

 Smaller in size compare to transistor, more reliable

and less energy
 Could be used for high level languages.
 Used mouse and keyboard for input.
 Used fan for heat discharge to prevent damage.
 Maintenance cost was low because hardware failure
is rare.
 Commercial production increased.
 THE 4TH GENERATION :
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND VLSI
(1980 – 1999)

 The significant distinction : techniques of

implementation of integrated circuits by using
large-scale integration (LSI) of chips with several
thousand transistors.
 In the mid 1970’s the development of very large
scale integration (VLSI) produced a chip
containing a microprocessor.
 The development of VLSI made the development
of the microcomputer possible (PC revolution).
 THE 4TH GENERATION :
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND VLSI
(1980 – 1999)

 The increased power of these small computers

meant they could be linked, creating networks.
Which ultimately led to the development, birth and
rapid evolution of the Internet.
 Other major advances during this period have been
the Graphical user interface (GUI), the mouse and
more recently the astounding advances in laptop
capability and hand-held devices.
Apple 1 developed by Steve Apple 11 (color personal computer)
Wozniack and Steve Jobs (1975) developed in 1976
announce in 1981
The first Apple GUI PC
named Apple Macintosh
(1984)
• The first IBM personal computer is
IBM PC (1981)
 Advantages of 4th generation
computers
 More powerful and reliable than previous
generations.
 Small in size
 Fast processing power with less power consumption
 Fan for heat discharging and thus to keep cold.
 No air conditioning required.
 Totally general purpose
 Less need of repair.
 Cheapest among all generations
 All types of high level languages can be used in this
type of computers
 The 5TH Generation :
Artificial Intelligence, Neural Networks, Digital/Analog Hybrids, Web Computing
(2000 – current)

 The VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale

Integration) technology, resulting in the production of
microprocessor chips having ten million electronic
components.
 This generation is based on parallel processing hardware
and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software.
 All the Higher level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net
etc. are used in this generation.
 5th Generation
 AI is an emerging branch in computer science, which
interprets means and method of making computers
think like human beings.
 AI includes:
– Robotics
– Neural networks
– Game Playing
– Development of expert systems to make decisions
in real life situations.
– Natural language understanding and generation.
 Main features of 5th generation

 ULSI technology
 Development of true Artificial Intelligence
 Development of Natural Language Processing
 Advancement in Parallel Processing
 Advancement in Superconductor technology
 More user friendly interfaces with multimedia features
 Availability of very powerful and compact computers
at cheaper rates