Chapter 03

Integral Relation for a Control Volume

 Basic Physical Laws of Fluid Mechanics
 System, is defined as an arbitrary quantity of mass of fixed identity
chosen for study.
 Everything external to this system is denoted by the term
surroundings, and the system is separated from its surroundings by
its boundaries.
 The boundary of a system can be fixed or movable.
 System can be considered to be as open or closed depending on whether a
fixed mass or a volume in space is chosen for study.
 Cont…
 A closed system (control mass) consists of a fixed
amount of mass, and no mass can cross its boundary.
But energy, in the form of heat or work, can cross
the boundary, and the volume of a closed system
does not have to be fixed.
 An open system (control volume), is a properly
selected region in space and consists of a device that
involves mass flow such as a compressor, turbine, or
nozzle.
 Both mass and energy can cross the
boundary of a control volume.
 A large number of engineering problems involve
mass flow in and out of a system, are modeled as
control volumes.
 A special case, of both mass and energy not allowed
to cross the boundary, that system is called an
isolated system.
 Cont…
•  The laws of mechanics then state what happens when there is an

interaction between the system and its surroundings.
Conservation of mass: the mass of the system is conserved and does
not change. This is a law of mechanics and has a very simple
mathematical form. or
Newton's second law: if the surroundings exert a net force F on the
system, Newton’s second law states that the mass will begin to
accelerate.
 In fluid mechanics Newton’s law is called the linear-momentum relation. Note
that it is a vector law which implies the three scalar equations = m,
= m, and = m.
Angular-momentum relation: if the surroundings exert a net moment
M about the center of mass of the system, there will be a rotation
effect.
Where, H= is the angular momentum of the system about its center of
mass.
 Cont…
First law of thermodynamics (energy relation): if heat dQ is added
to the system or work dW is done by the system, the system energy
dE must change.
or
The second law of thermodynamics relates entropy change dS to heat
added dQ and absolute temperature T:

The purpose of this chapter is to put our four basic laws into the
control-volume form suitable for arbitrary regions in a flow.
 Lagarangian & Eulerian method
 There are in general two methods by which the motion of a fluid
may be described, Lagarangian and Eulerian method.
 In the lagarangian method description, we follow individual fluid
particles or collections of fluid particles, while in the Eulerian
description, we define a control volume through which fluid flows in
and out.
 We transform equations of motion from Lagrangian to Eulerian
through use of the material derivative for infinitesimal fluid particles
and through use of the Reynolds transport theorem (RTT) for systems
of finite volume.
The Reynolds transport theorem (RTT)
 In fluid mechanics, it is usually more convenient to work with
control volumes, and thus there is a need to relate
the changes in a control volume to the changes in a system.
 The relationship between the time rates of change of an extensive
property for a system and for a control volume is expressed by the
Reynolds transport theorem (RTT), which provides the link
between the system and control volume approaches.
RTT is named after the English engineer,
Osborne Reynolds (1842–1912), who did
much to advance its application in fluid
mechanics.
The desired conversion formula differs
slightly according to whether the control
volume is fixed, moving, or deformable.
 Cont…
• Consider
   flow from left to right through a
diverging (expanding) portion of a flow
field as sketched in Figure. The upper and
lower bounds of the fluid under
consideration are streamlines of the flow,
and we assume uniform flow through any
cross section between these two streamlines.
We choose the control volume to be fixed
between sections (1) and (2) of the flow
field. Both (1) and (2) are normal to the
direction of flow.
At some initial time t, the system coincides with
the control volume, and thus the system &
control volume are identical (the shaded region).
 During time interval t, the system moves in the
flow direction at uniform speeds at section (1)
and at section (2).
 The system at this later time is indicated by the
hatched region. Moving system (hatched region)
Fixed control volume (shaded region)
 Cont…
• The
   region uncovered by the system during this motion is designated as
section I (part of the CV), and the new region covered by the system is
designated as section II (not part of the CV).
Therefore, at time t + t, the system consists of the same fluid, but it
occupies the region CV - I + II.
The control volume is fixed in space, and thus it remains as the shaded
region marked CV at all times.
Let B represent any extensive property (such as mass, energy, or
momentum), and let = B/m represent the corresponding intensive property.
Noting that extensive properties are additive, the extensive property B of
the system at times t and t + t can be expressed as;

Subtracting the first equation from the second one and dividing by t gives
 Cont…
•  Taking the limit as t → 0, and using the definition of derivative,

we get
………….(3a)

since,

Where, and are the cross-sectional areas at locations 1 and 2.

 Cont…
  To generalize the process, we consider a differential surface area dA
on the control surface and denote its unit outer normal by .
•  The flow rate of property b through dA is

b· dA
Since the dot product of · gives the normal
component of the velocity.
Then the net rate of outflow through the
entire control surface is determined by
integration to be

……….(3b)
The total amount of property B within the
control volume must be determined by
integration:

thus, ……………(3c)
 Cont…
Substituting equations 3b and 3c in to 3a gives the Reynolds transport
theorem (RTT)
……………(3d)

Rate of change of Rate of change of Net rate at which

property B with in the = property B in the + property B exits
system corresponding CV the CV

However, many practical systems such as turbine and propeller

blades involve nonfixed control volumes.
The RTT given above is also valid for moving and/or deforming
control volumes provided that the absolute fluid velocity V is
replaced by the relative velocity;
For a control volume that moves and/or deforms with time, the
time derivative must be applied after integration as equation (3d).
 Conservation of mass principle
• The conservation of mass for a control volume is expressed by the net
mass transfer to or from a control volume during a time interval t is
equal to the net change (increase or decrease) in the total mass within
the control volume during t.

It can be expressed in
rate form as;

The differential control volume dV

and the differential control surface
dA used in the derivation of the
conservation of mass relation.
 Cont…
•  The general conservation of mass relation for a control volume can

also be derived using the RTT replacing B=m and b=1.

Since, the mass of a system is constant, and thus its time derivative is
zero. That is =0
General conservation of mass:

Splitting the surface integral in into two parts;

 Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes
•  During a steady-flow process, the total

amount of mass contained within a control
volume does not change with time ( =
constant).
 The conservation of mass principle for a
general steady-flow system with multiple
inlets and outlets can be expressed in rate
form as;

Steady flow (single stream):

Steady, incompressible flow:

Steady, incompressible flow (single stream):

 Newton’s Laws and Conservation of Momentum
 Newton’s laws are relations between motions of bodies and the forces
acting on them. Newton’s first law states that a body at rest remains at
rest, and a body in motion remains in motion at the same velocity in a
straight path when the net force acting on it is zero. Therefore, a body
tends to preserve its state of inertia.
 Newton’s second law states that the acceleration of a body is
proportional to the net force acting on it and is inversely proportional
to its mass.
 Newton’s third law states that when a body exerts a force on a second
body, the second body exerts an equal and opposite force on the first.
For a rigid body of mass m, Newton’s second law is expressed as;

The product of the mass and the velocity of a body is called the linear
momentum or just the momentum of the body.
 Cont…
• The counterpart of Newton’s second law for rotating rigid bodies is
expressed as,
Where, is the net moment or torque applied on the body,
I is the moment of inertia of the body about the axis of rotation,
is the angular acceleration.
 It can also be expressed in terms of the rate of change of angular
momentum /dt as

where, is the angular velocity

It states that the rate of change of the angular momentum of a body is
equal to the net torque acting on it.
 For a rigid body rotating about a fixed x-axis, the angular
momentum equation can be written in scalar form as

Angular momentum about x-axis:

 Choosing a Control Volume
 A control volume can be selected as any arbitrary region in space
through which fluid flows, and its bounding control surface can be
fixed, moving, and even deforming during flow.

Forces acting on a control volume

The forces acting on a control volume consist
 body forces that act throughout the entire body of the control volume (such
as gravity, electric, and magnetic forces)
 surface forces that act on the control surface (such as pressure and viscous
forces and reaction forces at points of contact).
 The Linear Momentum Equation
•  Setting b=and thus B = m, the Reynolds transport theorem can be
expressed for linear momentum as

But, from Newton’s second law,

 The general form of the linear momentum equation that applies to
fixed, moving, or deforming control volumes is
mass
  flow rate
 for moving, deforming CV
 for fixed CV

Steady flow:
 
Momentum flux correction factor,
•  The velocity across most inlets and outlets of practical engineering

interest is not uniform.
Thus, dimensionless correction factor , called the momentum-flux
correction factor, is required.

where, a unique value of momentum-flux correction factor is applied to each

inlet and outlet in the control surface.
 Note that =1 for the case of uniform flow over an inlet or outlet.
Flow with No External Forces

 When there are no external forces such as weight, pressure, and

reaction forces acting on the body in the direction of motion (space
vehicles and satellites).
 The Angular Momentum Equation
 The motion of a rigid body can be
considered to be the combination of
the translational motion of its center
of mass and rotational motion about
its center of mass.
The translational motion can be
analyzed using the linear
momentum equation.
The rotational motion can be analyzed
using angular momentum equation.

Where, V is the linear velocity and at is the

linear acceleration in the tangential direction
for a point located at a distance r from the
axis of rotation.
 Cont…
Angular momentum of point mass
Analogy between corresponding
linear and angular quantities. m rotating at angular velocity v at
distance r from the axis of rotation.
 Cont…
•  The general control volume formulation of the angular momentum

equation is obtained by setting b = and B = in the general Reynolds
transport theorem.

But,
Thus, the general angular momentum equation becomes
 Cont….
Angular momentum relation reduces to the following
special case
Steady flow:

Steady and uniform flow:

No external moments:

 It can be stated as in the absence of external moments, the rate of

change of the angular momentum of a control volume is equal to the
difference between the incoming and outgoing angular momentum
fluxes.
 Conservation of Energy Principle
 1st law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy), states that
energy can be neither created nor destroyed during a process; it can
only change forms.
Total energy consists of internal, kinetic, and potential energies, and
it is expressed on a unit-mass basis as

Energy can be transferred by heat and work form

A system may involve numerous forms of work, and the total work can
be expressed as;

Where, Wshaft is the work transmitted by a rotating shaft,

Wpressure is the work done by the pressure forces on the control surface,
Wviscous is the work done by the normal and shear components of viscous
forces on the control surface, and
Wother is the work done by other forces such as electric, magnetic, and surface
tension
 Cont…
•  Shaft work: The power transmitted via a

rotating shaft is proportional to the shaft torque
Tshaft and is expressed as;

Work Done by Pressure Forces

Consider a gas being compressed in the piston-
cylinder device shown in figure.

Where, Vpiston = ds/dt is the piston velocity, which is the velocity of the
moving boundary at the piston face.

Pressure always acts inward and normal to the

surface, and the pressure force acting on a
differential area dA is P dA.

The total rate of work done by pressure forces is

obtained by integrating over the entire surface A,
 Cont…
Thus, the net power transfer can be expressed as

The rate form of the conservation of energy relation for a closed

system becomes;
……...(3e)
To obtain a relation for the conservation of energy for a control
volume, we apply the Reynolds transport theorem by replacing B
with total energy E, and b with total energy per unit mass e.
…………………….(3f)
Now, substituting eq. 3e into eq. 3f gives the general form of energy
equation that applies to fixed, moving or deforming CV.
 Energy Analysis of Steady Flows
For steady flows, the time rate of change of the energy content of the
control volume is zero, and the general energy equation simplifies to

It states that the net rate of energy transfer to a control volume by heat
and work transfers during steady flow is equal to the difference between
the rates of outgoing and incoming energy flows with mass.
 Many practical problems involve just one
inlet and one outlet. Thus, the mass flow rate
for such single-stream devices remains
constant;

The steady flow energy equation on a unit-mass

basis becomes
 The Bernoulli Equation
The Bernoulli equation is an approximate relation between pressure,
velocity, and elevation, and is valid in regions of steady,
incompressible flow where net frictional forces are negligible.
 It is valid only in inviscid regions of flow where net viscous forces are
negligibly small compared to inertial, gravitational, or pressure forces.
 We cannot apply the Bernoulli equation everywhere in
a flow, no matter how small the fluid’s viscosity.
However, is reasonable in certain regions of many
practical flows (as inviscid regions of flow, and we
stress that they are not regions where the fluid itself is
inviscid or frictionless, but rather they are regions
where net viscous or frictional forces are negligibly
small compared to other forces acting on fluid
particles).
 In general, frictional effects are always important very close to solid
walls (boundary layers) and directly downstream of bodies (wakes).
 Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
Consider the motion of a fluid particle in a flow field in steady flow
and applying Newton’s second law (conservation of linear momentum
relation in fluid mechanics) in the s-direction on a particle moving
along a streamline gives

 Significant forces acting in the s-direction

are the pressure (acting on both sides) and
the component of the weight of the
particle in the s-direction

Substituting,
 Where, is the angle between the normal
of the streamline and the vertical z- axis
at that point, m=V= dA ds is the mass, W
= mg = g dA ds is the weight of the fluid
particle, and sin = dz/ds.
 Cont…
•  Canceling dA from each term and simplifying


Noting that VdV = d() and dividing each term by gives

And integrating gives;

Steady flow:
since the last two terms are exact differentials. In the case of
incompressible flow, the first term also becomes an exact differential,
and its integration gives

Steady, incompressible flow:

 Static, Dynamic, and Stagnation Pressures
•  The Bernoulli equation states that the sum of the flow, kinetic, and
potential energies of a fluid particle along a streamline is constant.
Therefore, the kinetic and potential energies of the fluid can be
converted to flow energy (and vice versa) during flow, causing the
pressure to change.
This phenomenon can be made more visible by multiplying the
Bernoulli equation by the density ,

Each term in this equation has pressure units, and thus each term
represents some kind of pressure:
 P is the static pressure (it does not incorporate any dynamic effects);
it represents the actual thermodynamic pressure of the fluid. This is
the same as the pressure used in thermodynamics and property tables.
 Cont…
•  /2 is the dynamic pressure; it represents the

pressure rise when the fluid in motion is
brought to a stop isentropically.
gz is the hydrostatic pressure, which is not
pressure in a real sense since its value
depends on the reference level selected; it
accounts for the elevation effects, i.e., of
fluid weight on pressure.
The sum of the static and dynamic pressures
is called the stagnation pressure, and it is
expressed as;

 The stagnation pressure represents the pressure at a point where the

fluid is brought to a complete stop isentropically. When static &
stagnation pressures are measured at a specified location, the fluid
velocity at that location can be calculated from
 Limitations on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation
•   Steady flow: it should not be used during the
1.
transient start-up and shut-down periods, or during periods of change
in the flow conditions.
2. Frictionless flow: Frictional effects are also significant near solid
surfaces, and thus the Bernoulli equation is usually applicable along
a streamline in the core region of the flow, but not along a streamline
close to the surface.
3. No shaft work: it is not applicable in a flow section that involves a
pump, turbine, fan, or any other machine or impeller since such
devices destroy the streamlines and carry out energy interactions
with the fluid particles. Thus, the energy equation should be used
instead to account for the shaft work input or output.
4. Incompressible flow: One of the assumptions used in the derivation
of the Bernoulli equation is that constant and thus the flow is
incompressible. This condition is satisfied by liquids and also by
gases at Mach numbers less than about 0.3 since compressibility
effects and thus density variations of gases are negligible at such
relatively low velocities.
 Cont…
5. No heat transfer: The density of a gas is inversely proportional to
temperature, and thus the Bernoulli equation should not be used for
flow sections that involve significant temperature change such as
heating or cooling sections.
6. Flow along a streamline: When the flow is irrotational (no vorticity
) the value of the constant C remains the same for all streamlines ,
the Bernoulli equation becomes applicable between any two points
along the flow (not just on the same streamline).

Irrotational flow
The End