Chapter 3 – Part 1

DC-DC
CONVERTER

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 DC-DC CONVERTERS
 Part 1 – Non-isolated DC-DC converter
(continuous current mode)

 Part 2 - Non-isolated DC-DC converter

(discontinuous current mode)

Part 3 – Isolated DC-DC converter

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 DC-DC CONVERTERS
 Linear Voltage Regulators
 Switching Converters
 Buck (Step-Down) Converter
 Boost (Step-Up) Converter
 Buck-Boost Converter

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Figure 8.1
INTRODUCTION TO DC - DC CONVERTER

DC DC – DC DC
unregulated converter regulated
Figure 8.1
LINEAR VOLTAGE REGULATORS

Figure 6-1 A basic linear regulator

• One method of converting a DC voltage to a lower DC voltage is a simple circuit as

shown in Fig. 6-1. The output voltage is:

where the load current is controlled by the transistor. By adjusting the transistor base
current, the output voltage may be controlled over a range of 0 to roughly Vs.

• This type of circuit is called a linear dc-dc converter or a linear regulator because the
transistor operates in the linear region, rather than in the saturation or cutoff regions.

• The transistor in effect operates as a variable resistance.

• Power loss is high at high current due to:

Figure 8.1
A BASIC SWITCHING CONVERTER
• The transistor operates as an electronic
switch by being completely ON or
completely OFF (saturation or cutoff for
a BJT or the triode and cutoff regions of
a MOSFET).
• This circuit is also known as a DC
chopper.
• Assuming the switch is ideal in Fig. 6-2,
the output is the same as the input when
the switch is closed, and the output is
zero when the switch is open. Periodic
opening and closing of the switch
results in the pulse output shown in Fig.
6-2c.
• The average or DC component of the Figure 6-2 (a) A basic dc-dc switching converter; (b) Switching
output voltage is: equivalent; (c) Output voltage.
Figure 8.1
DC-DC CONVERTER:
THE BUCK (STEP-DOWN) CONVERTER

Analysis of the buck converter of Fig. 6-3a begins by making these assumptions:

1.The circuit is operating in the steady-state.

2.The inductor current is continuous (always positive).

3.The capacitor is very large, and the output voltage is held constant at voltage Vo.
This restriction will be relaxed later to show the effects of finite capacitance.

4.The switching period is T; the switch is closed for time DT and open for time (1-
D)T.

5.The components are ideal.

Figure 8.1
DC-DC CONVERTER:
THE BUCK (STEP-DOWN) CONVERTER

Source Load
(DC) (DC)

PE circuitry
ON

OFF

Figure 6-3 (a) Buck dc-dc converter; (b) Equivalent

circuit for the switch closed; (c) Equivalent circuit Figure 6-4 Buck converter waveforms: (a) Inductor voltage;
for the switch open. (b) Inductor current; (c) Capacitor current.
Figure 8.1
DC-DC CONVERTER:
THE BUCK (STEP-DOWN) CONVERTER

Analysis for the Switch Closed (ON):

The voltage across the inductor is:

Rearranging,

The change in current while the switch is closed is computed by modifying the preceding
equation (the rate of change of inductor current with respect to time).

ON OFF
Figure 8.1
DC-DC CONVERTER:
THE BUCK (STEP-DOWN) CONVERTER

Analysis for the Switch Open (OFF):

The voltage across the inductor is:

Rearranging,

The change in inductor current when the switch is open is:

ON OFF
Figure 8.1
DC-DC CONVERTER:
THE BUCK (STEP-DOWN) CONVERTER

Steady-state current :

Steady - state operation requires that at the

end of switching cycle is the same at the
beginning of the next cycle. That is the
change of over one period is zero, i.e :

Using Eqs. (6-7) and (6-8),

Solving for Vo,

Figure 8.1
DC-DC CONVERTER:
THE BUCK (STEP-DOWN) CONVERTER
Inductor current:

The average inductor current must be the same as the average current in the load resistor,
since the average capacitor current must be zero for steady-state operation:

Since the change in inductor current is known from Eqs. (6-7) and (6-8), the maximum and
minimum values of the inductor current are computed as:

where f =1/T is the switching frequency.

Figure 8.1
DC-DC CONVERTER:
THE BUCK (STEP-DOWN) CONVERTER
Continuous current in the inductor:

Equation (6-12) can be used to determine the combination of L and f that will result in
continuous current. Since Imin = 0 is the boundary between continuous and discontinuous
current,

If the desired switching frequency is established,

where Lmin is the minimum inductance required for continuous current. In practice,
a value of inductance greater than Lmin is desirable to ensure continuous current. BUT, if the
peak-to-peak variation in the inductor current is given:
Figure 8.1
DC-DC CONVERTER:
THE BUCK (STEP-DOWN) CONVERTER
Output Voltage Ripple:

The variation in output voltage, or ripple, is computed

from the voltage-current relationship of the capacitor:

Resulting in,

Using Eq. (6-8) for iL,

Figure 6-5 Buck converter waveforms. (a) Capacitor
current; (b) Capacitor ripple voltage.

the ripple as a fraction of the output voltage:

Example 6.1

The buck DC-DC converter of Fig. 6-3a has the following parameters:
Vs = 50 V
D = 0.4
L = 400 uH
C = 100 uF
f = 20 kHz
R = 20 
Assuming ideal components, calculate:
(a) the output voltage Vo
(b) the maximum and minimum inductor current
(c) the output voltage ripple.
Problem 6.6 (TEXT BOOK page 260) QUIZ 1

The buck converter has an input of 50 V and an output of 25 V.

The switching frequency is 100 kHz, and the output power to a
load resistor is 125 W.
a)Determine the duty ratio.

b)Determine the value of inductance to limit the peak inductor

current to 6.25 A.

c)Determine the value of capacitance to limit the output voltage

ripple to 0.5 percent.
Figure 8.1
DC-DC CONVERTER:
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

 Calculate D to obtain required output voltage.

 Select a particular switching frequency (f) and device

• Preferably f >20kHz for negligible acoustic noise
• Higher f results in smaller L and C. But results in higher losses. Reduced
efficiency, larger heat sink.
• Possible devices: MOSFET, IGBT and BJT. Low power MOSFET can reach
MHz range.

 Calculate Lmin. Choose L >> 2 Lmin

Figure 8.1
DC-DC CONVERTER:
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

 Calculate C for ripple factor requirement. Capacitor ratings:

• must withstand peak output voltage
• must carry required RMS current. Note RMS current for triangular waveform is
Ip/3, where Ip is the peak capacitor current given by ∆iL/2.
• ECAPs can be used

 Wire size consideration:

 Normally rated in RMS. But iL is known as peak. RMS value for iL is given as:
Example 6.2

Design a buck converter to produce an output voltage of 18 V

across a 10 load resistor. The output voltage ripple must not
exceed 0.5 percent. The DC supply is 48 V. Design for
continuous inductor current. Specify the duty ratio, the switching
frequency, the values of the inductor and capacitor, the peak
voltage rating of each device, and the rms current in the inductor
and capacitor. Assume ideal components.
Problem 6.14 (TEXT BOOK page 261) QUIZ 2

Design a buck converter that has an output of 12 V from an input

of 18 V. The output power is 10 W. The output voltage ripple
must be no more than 100 mV p-p. Specify the duty ratio,
switching frequency, and inductor and capacitor values. Design
for continuous inductor current. Assume ideal components

Let:
f = 200kHz
L = 2Lmin
Figure 8.1
DC-DC CONVERTER:
BOOST (STEP UP) CONVERTER

The analysis assumes the following:

1.Steady-state conditions exist.

2.The switching period is T, and the switch is closed for time DT and open for
(1-D)T.

3.The inductor current is continuous (always positive).

4.The capacitor is very large, and the output voltage is held constant at voltage Vo.

5.The components are ideal.

Figure 8.1
DC-DC CONVERTER:
BOOST (STEP UP) CONVERTER
Source
Load
(DC)
(DC)

PE circuitry

Figure 6-9 Boost converter waveforms. (a) Inductor voltage;

(b) Inductor current; (c) Diode current; (d) Capacitor current.

Figure 6-8 The boost converter. (a) Circuit;

(b) Equivalent circuit for the switch closed;
(c) Equivalent circuit for the switch open.
Figure 8.1
DC-DC CONVERTER:
BOOST (STEP UP) CONVERTER

Analysis for the Switch Closed (ON):

The voltage across the inductor is:

The rate of change of current is a constant, so the current increases linearly while the switch
is closed, as shown in Fig. 6-9b. The change in inductor current is computed from

Solving for iL for the switch closed,

Figure 8.1
DC-DC CONVERTER:
BOOST (STEP UP) CONVERTER

Analysis for the Switch Open (OFF):

The voltage across the inductor is:

The rate of change of inductor current is a constant, so the current must change linearly
while the switch is open. The change in inductor current while the switch is open is

Solving for iL,

Figure 8.1
DC-DC CONVERTER:
BOOST (STEP UP) CONVERTER

Steady-state:

For steady-state operation, the net change

in inductor current must be zero. Using
Eqs. (6-25) and (6-26):

Solving for Vo,

Figure 8.1
DC-DC CONVERTER:
BOOST (STEP UP) CONVERTER

Inductor current:

Assume lossless converter, input power is VsIs =VsIL. Equating input and output powers and
using Eq. (6-27),

Po = Pin
By solving for average inductor current and making various substitutions, IL can be expressed
as

Maximum and minimum inductor currents are determined by using the average value and the
change in current from Eq. (6-25).
Figure 8.1
DC-DC CONVERTER:
BOOST (STEP UP) CONVERTER

Continuous in inductor current:

A condition necessary for continuous inductor current is for Imin to be positive. Therefore, the
boundary between continuous and discontinuous inductor current is determined from:

The minimum combination of inductance and switching frequency for continuous current in
the boost converter is therefore:

BUT, if the peak-to-peak variation in the inductor current is given:

Figure 8.1
DC-DC CONVERTER:
BOOST (STEP UP) CONVERTER

Output Voltage Ripple:

The change in capacitor charge can be calculated from:

An expression for ripple voltage is then:

where f is the switching frequency. Alternatively, expressing capacitance in terms of output

voltage ripple yields:
Example 6.4

Design a boost converter that will have an output of 30 V from a

12V source. Design for continuous inductor current and an output
ripple voltage of less than one percent. The load is a resistance of
50 . Assume ideal components for this design.
To ensure continuous
current
Example 6.5

A boost converter is required to have an output voltage of 8 V

and supply a load current of 1 A. The input voltage varies from
2.7 to 4.2 V. A control circuit adjusts the duty ratio to keep the
output voltage constant. Select the switching frequency.
Determine a value for the inductor such that the variation in
inductor current is no more than 40 percent of the average
inductor current for all operating conditions. Determine a value
of an ideal capacitor such that the output voltage ripple is no
more than 2 percent. Determine the maximum capacitor
equivalent series resistance for a 2 percent ripple.

Vs = 2.7 – 4.2V
Vo = 8V
Io = 1A
iL < 40% of IL
vo < 2%
vo,ESR  2% ripple
Reality capacitor equivalent circuit
Problem 6.17 (TEXT BOOK page 261) QUIZ 3

The boost converter of Fig. 6-8 has parameter Vs = 20 V, D = 0.6,

R = 12.5Ω , L = 10 µH, C = 40µF, and the switching frequency is
200 kHz.
•Determine the output voltage.
•Determine the average, maximum, and minimum inductor
currents.
•Determine the output voltage ripple.
•Determine the average current in the diode. Assume ideal
components.
Problem 6.20 (TEXT BOOK page 262)
QUIZ 4

Design a boost converter to provide an output of 18 V from a 12-V

source. The load is 20 W. The output voltage ripple must be less
than 0.5 percent. Specify the duty ratio, the switching frequency,
the inductor size and rms current rating, and the capacitor size and
rms current rating. Design for continuous current. Assume ideal
components.

Vs = 12V
Vo = 18V
Po = 20W
vo < 0.5%
Assume f = 200kHz
Figure 8.1
DC-DC CONVERTER:
BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER

Assumptions made about the operation of the converter are as

follows:

1.The circuit is operating in the steady state.

2.The inductor current is continuous.

3.The capacitor is large enough to assume a constant output

voltage.

4.The switch is closed for time DT and open for (1-D)T.

5.The components are ideal.

Figure 8.1
DC-DC CONVERTER:
BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER

Source Load
(DC) (DC)

PE circuitry
Figure 8.1
DC-DC CONVERTER:
BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER

Analysis for the Switch Closed (ON):

The voltage across the inductor is:

The rate of change of inductor current is a constant, indicating a linearly increasing inductor
current. The preceding equation can be expressed as

Solving for iL when the switch is closed gives:

Figure 8.1
DC-DC CONVERTER:
BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER

Analysis for the Switch Open (OFF):

The voltage across the inductor is:

Again, the rate of change of inductor current is constant, and the change in current is

Solving for iL,

Figure 8.1
DC-DC CONVERTER:
BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER

Steady-state:

For steady-state operation, the net change

in inductor current must be zero over
one period. Using Eqs. (6-45) and (6-46),

Solving for Vo,

Figure 8.1
DC-DC CONVERTER:
BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER
Inductor current:

Average source current is related to average inductor current by

resulting in

Substituting for Vo using Eq. (6-47) and solving for IL, we find

Maximum and minimum inductor currents are determined using Eqs. (6-45) and
(6-49).
Figure 8.1
DC-DC CONVERTER:
BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER

Continuous in inductor current:

For continuous current, the inductor current must remain positive. To determine the
boundary between continuous and discontinuous current, Imin is set to zero in Eq. (6-51),
resulting in

or

where f is the switching frequency.

Figure 8.1
DC-DC CONVERTER:
BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER

Output Voltage Ripple:

The output voltage ripple for the buck-boost converter is computed from the capacitor
current waveform of Fig. 6-12d.

Solving for Vo,

or
Example 6.6

The buck-boost circuit of Fig. 6-11 has these parameters:

Vs = 24 V
D = 0.4
R=5
L = 20 H
C = 80 F
f = 100 kHz

Determine the output voltage, inductor current average,

maximum and minimum values, and the output voltage ripple.
Problem 6.25 (TEXT BOOK page 262) QUIZ 5

The buck-boost converter of Fig. 6-11 has Vs = 24 V, Vo = 36 V,

and a load resistance of 10 Ω. If the switching frequency is 100
kHz,
(a)determine the inductance such that the minimum current is 40
percent of the average and
(b)determine the capacitance required to limit the output voltage
ripple to 0.5 percent.
Problem 6.28 (TEXT BOOK page 262) QUIZ 6

Design a buck-boost converter that has a source that varies from

10 to 14 V. The output is regulated at -12 V. The load varies
from 10 to 15 W. The output voltage ripple must be less than 1
percent for any operating condition. Determine the range of the
duty ratio of the switch. Specify values of the inductor and
capacitor, and explain how you made your design decision.

Assume iL to be 40% of IL and f = 100kHz.