Q1. What is variable covalency?

A1. Example of variable covalency is shown by P and S

Explanation:
Variable covalency refers the tendency of certain atoms to show different covalencies as a result of
excitation of the atom. In the atoms that exhibit variable covalency the number of unpaired electrons
increases as a result of excitation of the atom that causes it to have variable covalency.
 
Q2. What is lattice energy?
A2. Lattice energy is defined as the energy required to separate a mole of an ionic solid into gaseous ions.
Lattice energy is an estimate of the bond strength in ionic compounds. It is defined as the heat of formation
for ions of opposite charge in the gas phase to combine into an ionic solid. As an example, the lattice energy
of sodium chloride, NaCl, is the energy released when gaseous Na+ and Cl– ions come together to form a
lattice of alternating ions in the NaCl crystal.
Q3. What are Fajan’s Rules?
A3.
Q4. What are Sidgwick’s views regarding failure of the octet rule?
A4. Through Singlet linkage.

Q5. Explain the main postulates of VSEPR Theory.

VSEPR Theory is used to predict the shape of the molecules from the electron pairs that surround the central
atoms of the molecule. The theory was first presented by Sidgwick and Powell in 1940. VSEPR theory is based
on the assumption that the molecule will take a shape such that electronic repulsion in the valence shell of that
atom is minimized.
Main postulates are
i) The exact shape of molecule depends upon no of electron pairs (bonder or non – bonded) around the central
atom.
ii) The electron pairs tend to repel each other since they exist around the central atom and the e- clouds are
negatively charged.
iii) electron pairs try to take such position which can minimize the repulsion b/w them.
iv) The valence shell is taken as a sphere with the electron pairs placed at distance.
v) A multiple bond is treated as if it is a single electron pair & the electron pairs which constitute the bond as a
single pair.
vi) The maximum repulsion is between lone pair electron and lone pair electron and min. between bond pair
electron and bond pair electron
vii) The bond pairs and lone pairs minimize the repulsion and take the position with minimum repulsion.
viii) The repulsive interaction of electron pairs decreases in the order:

Lone pair (lp) – Lone pair (lp) > Lone pair (lp) – Bond pair (bp) > Bond pair (bp) – Bond pair (bp)
Q5. Give modern concept of covalent bonding./ Model based on wave mechanical model
A5. a) VBT
b) MOT
Q6. Main postulates of VBT.
A6.
The valence bond theory was proposed by Heitler and London to explain the formation of covalent bond quantitatively
using quantum mechanics. Later on, Linus Pauling improved this theory by introducing the concept of hybridization.
 The main postulates of this theory are as follows: 
* A covalent bond is formed by the overlapping of two half filled valence atomic orbitals of two different atoms.
* The electrons in the overlapping orbitals get paired and confined between the nuclei of two atoms.
* The electron density between two bonded atoms increases due to overlapping. This confers stability to the molecule. 
* Greater the extent of overlapping, stronger is the bond formed. 
* The direction of the covalent bond is along the region of overlapping of the atomic orbitals i.e., covalent bond is
directional.
 p
 bond:
 
* There are two types of covalent bonds based on the pattern of overlapping as follows:
(i) σ-bond: The covalent bond formed due to overlapping of atomic orbital along the inter
nucleus axis is called σ-bond. It is a stronger bond and cylindrically symmetrical.
Depending on the types of orbitals overlapping, the σ-bond is divided into following types:
σs-s bond:

σp-p bond:

σs-p bond:
 (ii) π-bond: The covalent bond formed by sidewise overlapping of atomic orbitals is
called π- bond. In this bond, the electron density is present above and below the inter nuclear
axis. It is relatively a weaker bond since the electrons are not strongly attracted by the nuclei
of bonding atoms.

Note: The 's' orbitals can only form σ-bonds, whereas the p, d & f orbitals can form both
σ and π-bonds.
Q7. Explain formation of following compound by VBT.
O2 molecule:
* The electronic configuration of O in the ground state is [He] 2s2 2px2 2py1 2pz1.
* The half filled 2py orbitals of two oxygen atoms overlap along the inter-nuclear axis
and form σp-p bond.
* The remaining half filled 2pz orbitals overlap laterally to form a πp-p bond.
* Thus a double bond (one σp-p and one πp-p) is formed between two oxygen atoms.
 N2 molecule:
* The ground state electronic configuration of N is [He] 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz1.
* A σp-p bond is formed between two nitrogen atoms due to overlapping of half filled 2px atomic
orbitals along the inter-nuclear axis.
* The remaining half filled 2py and 2pz orbitals form two πp-p bonds due to lateral overlapping. Thus a
triple bond (one and two) is formed between two nitrogen atoms.
Q8. Main postulates of MOT.
A8

Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAO)

Molecular orbitals can generally be expressed through a linear combination of atomic orbitals (abbreviated to
LCAO). These LCAOs are useful in the estimation of the formation of these orbitals in the bonding between the
atoms that make up a molecule.
The Schrodinger equation used to describe the electron behaviour for molecular orbitals can be written in a method
similar to that for atomic orbitals.
In a molecule, electrons are present in new orbitals called molecular orbitals.
(ii) Molecular orbitals are formed by combination of atomic orbitals of equal energies(in case of homonuclear molecules) or
of comparable energies.(in case of heteronuclear molecules).
(iii) The number of molecular orbitals formed is equal to the number of atomic orbitals undergoing combination.
(iv) Two atomic orbitals can combine to form two molecular orbitals. Out of these two molecular orbitals one has a lower
energy and the other has a higher energy. The molecular orbital with lower energy is called bonding molecular orbital and the
other with higher energy is called anti bonding molecular orbital.
(v) The shapes of molecular orbitals depend upon the shapes of combining atomic orbitals.
Q9. How do molecular orbitals form?
The formation of molecular orbitals is from the overlap of atomic orbitals; or more specific, from the wave
interaction of atomic orbitals.
Q10. What are the factors that affect the orbital interaction?
There are some significant factors that affect the strength of orbital interaction
- Symmetry of the molecule orbital
- The difference between orbitals’ energies
- The orbitals' sizes
- The distance between orbitals
Q11. What are HOMO and LUMO? How do they interact in the molecule orbitals?
The highest energy occupied molecular orbital is called HOMO
The lowest energy unoccupied molecular orbital is called LUMO
These orbitals are a pair and they lie very close together in energy of two molecules. Therefore, the interaction
between them is very strong.
Q12.What are the two types of electron waves interaction?
In-phase and out of phase interactions
Q13. How do the intensity of negative charge of electrons change in each types of of electron waves interaction?
The intensity of negative charge of electrons increases in the in-phase interaction and decreases in the out-of-phase
interaction.
Q13. How do the intensity of negative charge of electrons change in each types of of electron waves interaction?
The intensity of negative charge of electrons increases in the in-phase interaction and decreases in the out-of-phase interaction.
Q14. Explain the different types of H bonding present in compounds.
The force of attraction existing between hydrogen atom which is attached to highly electronegative atom in a covalent molecule
and more electronegative atom of another covalent molecule is called hydrogen bonding.
Hydrogen bond is possible mostly in polar covalent molecules where partial charge separation is there.As this bond existed
between partial charges, it is considered to be weak bond than ionic and covalent bonds.
 
1.Intra molecular Hydrogen Bonding:
 
The hydrogen bonding present within the same molecule, is called as intramolecular hydrogen bonding.
Ex: Hydrogen bonding present in Ortho-Nitro Phenol
 
 
Applications of Intermolecular H-bonding
1(i) Melting point and boiling point of water Water has the lowest molecular weight among the hydrides of group
16 elements yet it has the highest melting and boiling points. It is due to intermolecular H-bonding in H 2 O.
1.(ii) Ice has less density than water In crystal structure of ice every water molecule is associated with four other
water molecules by H-bonding in a cage like tetrahedral structure. On melting, the ice H-bonds are broken and
space between water molecules decreases and density of water increases up to 4 o C Above 4°C. more H-bonds are
broken. the water molecules get apart from each other and the density again decreases. Thus, water has
maximum density at 4°C.
2.(iii) Melting point and boiling point of alcohols The marked difference between the melting and boiling points of
alcohols is also due to H-bonding.
3.Applications of Intramolecular H-bonding
4.Volatile character of nitrophenols o-nitrophenol is more volatile (b.p. 214°C) as compared to meta (b.p. 290°C)
and para (b.p. 279°C). It is due to chelation.