Object-oriented modeling and

design

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Introduction
 It is a new way of thinking about problems using
models based on real world concepts.
 The basic construct is object which combines
both data structure and behavior in a single
entity.
 Rambaugh presents an object oriented software
development methodology, the Object Modeling
Technique (OMT) which extends from analysis
through design to implementation.

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 Analysis model is built to abstract essential
aspects of application domain which contains
objects found in application, their properties and
behavior.
 Then design model is made to describe and
optimize the implementation.
 Finally the design model is implemented in a
programming language, database or hardware.
 Graphical notation is used for expressing
object-oriented models.

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What is object-oriented?
 Software is organized as a collection of
discrete objects that incorporate both data
structure and behavior.
 In general it includes- identity, classification,
polymorphism and inheritance.
 Object Oriented Programming Language
= Object Based Programming Language(e.g.
'83 Ada and Modula-2)
+ Inheritance + Dynamic Binding

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Identity
 Identity means that data is organized into
discrete, distinguishable entities called objects.
 Objects can be concrete or conceptual.
 In real world an object simply exist but within a
programming language each object has a
unique handle by which it can be uniquely
referenced.
 The handle can be implemented by address,
array index or unique value of an attribute.

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Classification

 It means that objects with same data

structure (attribute) and behavior
(operations) are grouped into a class.

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Polymorphism

 It means that the same operation (i.e.

action or transformation that the object
performs) may behave differently on
different classes.
 Specific implementation of an operation
by a certain class is called a method.

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Inheritance

 It is the sharing of attributes and

operations among classes based on a
hierarchical relationship.
 Subclasses can be formed from broadly
defined class.
 Each subclass incorporates or inherits all
the properties of its super class and
adds its own unique properties.

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Object-oriented development?
 The theme is the identification and
organization of application concepts rather
than final representation in a prog. Language.
 OOD approach encourages software
developers to work and think in terms of the
application domain through most of the
software engineering life cycle.
 It is a conceptual process independent of a
programming language until the final stage.

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Object-oriented methodology

 Stages-
 Analysis
 System design
 Object design
 implementation

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 Analysis - An analysis model is a
concise, precise abstraction of what the
desired system must do, not how it will
be done. It should not contain any
implementation details. The objects in
the model should be application domain
concepts and not the computer
implementation concepts.

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 System design - The designer makes
high level decisions about the overall
architecture. In system design, the target
system is organized as various
subsystems based on both the analysis
structure and the proposed architecture.

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 Object design - The designer builds a
design model based on the analysis
model but containing implementation
details. The focus of object design is the
data structures and algorithms needed to
implement each cycle.

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 Implementation - The object classes and
relationships developed during object
design are finally translated into a
particular programming language,
database, or hardware implementation.
During implementation, it is important to
follow good software engineering
practice so that the system can remain
the traceability, flexibility and
extensibility.
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3 models

 Object model
 Dynamic model
 Functional model

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Object model

 Describes basic structure of objects and

their relationship
 Contains object diagram
 Object diagram is a graph whose nodes
are object classes (Classes) and whose
arcs are relationships among classes.

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Dynamic model

 Describes the aspects of a system that

change over time.
 It specifies and implement control
aspects of a system.
 Contains state diagram.
 State diagram is a graph whose nodes
are states and whose arcs are data-
flows.

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Functional Model

 Describes data value transformation

within a system.
 Contains data flow diagram.
 Data Flow Diagram is a graph whose
nodes are processes and whose arcs
are data flows.

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Object-Oriented concepts

 Abstraction
 Encapsulation
 Combining data and behavior
 Sharing
 Object structure, not Procedure
Structure
 Synergy

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Abstraction
 It consists of focusing on essential aspects of an entity and
ignoring accidental properties.
 The goal is to isolate those aspects that are important for some
purpose and suppress those aspects that are unimportant.
 Abstraction must always for some purpose because the purpose
determines what is and what is not important.
 Many different abstractions of same thing are possible,
depending on the purpose for which they are made.
 In building models, one must not search for absolute truth but for
adequacy for some purpose.
 A good model captures the crucial aspects of a problem and
omits the others.
 Focus on what an object is and does, not how to implement.

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21
Encapsulation
 Information hiding
 Separating external aspects of an object
which are accessible to other objects,
from the internal implementation details
of the object, which are hidden from
other objects.
 The implementation of an object can be
changed without affecting the
applications that use it.

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23
Synergy

 Identity, Classification, polymorphism

and inheritance can be used in isolation
but together they complement each
other synergistically.

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Advantages of OOD……………
 Used in developing Compilers, Graphics, UI,
databases, Object oriented languages, CAD
systems, simulations, etc.
 Used to document existing programs that are
ill-structured and difficult to understand.
 Not reduces development time; it may take
more time than conventional development
because it is intended to promote future reuse
and reduce downstream errors and
maintenance.

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Modeling
 A model is an abstraction of something
for the purpose of understanding it
before building it.
 The word model has 2 dimensions- a
view of a system ( object, dynamic or
functional) and a stage of development
( analysis, design or implementation)

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 Purpose –
 Testing a physical entity before building
it
 Communication with customers
 Visualization
 Reduction of complexity

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Object Modeling

 Captures static structure of a system-

 Objects in the system
 Attributes
 operations

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Objects

 Define objects as a concept, abstraction

or thing with purposeful meaning.
 Two purpose of objects-
 Promote understanding of the real world
 Provide a practical basis for computer
implementation.
 All objects have identity and are
distinguishable.
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30
Classes

 An object class describes a group of

objects with similar properties
(attributes), common behavior
(operations), common relationships to
other objects and common semantics.

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Object diagram

 It provides a formal graphic notation for

modeling objects, classes and their
relationships to one another.
 Types-
 Class diagram
 Instance diagram

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Class diagram

 A class diagram is a schema, pattern or

templates for describing many possible
instances of data.
 Describes classes.

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Instance diagram

 Describes how a particular set of objects

relate to each other.
 Describes objects

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 Person (Person) (Person) (Person)
Ram Jai
Class Diagram

Instance Diagram

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Attribute

 An attribute is a data value held by the

objects in a class.
 Each attribute name is unique within a
class.
 An attribute should be a pure data value,
not an object.

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Object Modeling Notations
Person (Person) (Person)
Ram Jai
name: string 24 34
age: integer

Class with Attributes Objects with Values

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Operations and Methods
 An operation is a function or transformation that
may be applied to or by objects in a class.
 All objects in a class share the same operations.
 The same operation may apply to many different
classes.
 Such an operation is polymorphic i.e. the same
operation takes on different forms in different
classes.
 A method is the implementation of an operation
for a class.

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 Person File
name name
age size
change-job print
change-add

Operations

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Links and Association
 Links and associations are the means for establishing
relationships among objects and classes.
 A link is a physical or conceptual connection between objects.
 A link is an instance of an association.
 An association describes a group of links with common structure
and semantics.
 All the links in an association connect objects from the same
classes.
 Association and links often appear as verbs in a problem
statement.
 An association describes a set of potential links in the same way
that a class describes a set of potential objects.

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 Associations are bidirectional.
 In real, both directions of traversal are equally
meaningful and refer to same association.
 Associations are often implemented in
programming languages as pointers from one
object to another.
 A pointer is an attribute in one object that
contains an explicit reference to another
object.

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 A link shows a relationship between two
or more objects.
 All connections among classes should
be modeled as association.
 One-to-one association
 Many-to-many association
 Ternary association

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Country Has-capital City
name name Class Diagram

(Country) Has-capital (City) Instance Diagram

India Delhi

One-to-One Association and links

 Line intersects Point Class Diagram
name 2+ name

(Line)
L1
(Point)
(Line) P1
L2 Instance Diagram
(Line)
L3 (Point)
P2
(Line)
L4
(Line)
L5

Many-to-many Association and links

Project Language

Person

(Project) (Language)
MIS .Net

(Person)
Jai

(Project) (Language)
CAD C

Ternary Association and Links

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Multiplicity

 It specifies how many instances of one

class may relate to a single instance of an
associated class.
 In OMT solid ball -> zero or more
 Hollow ball -> optional (zero or one)
 Multiplicity depends upon assumptions
and how you define the boundaries of a
problem.

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Link attributes

 An link attribute is a property of the links

in an association.

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 Accessible By
File User

Access permission

/etc/temp read Ram

/etc/temp read-write Mohan
/usr/lgn read-write Shyam

Link Attributes for a many-to-many association

boss Person Works-for Company
name Name
ssn address
address
worker Salary
Job-title
manages

Performance rating

Link attributes for one-to-many associations

Modeling an Association as a Class

 Each link becomes one instance of the

class.

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 Authorized on
User Workstation

Authorization
Priority
Privileges
Start session

Home directory

Directory

Modeling an association as a class

Role Names
 A role is one end of an association.
 A binary association has 2 roles, each of
which may have a role name.
 A role name is a name that uniquely identifies
one end of an association.
 Roles often appear as nouns in problem
descriptions.
 Use of role name is optional.
 Role names are necessary for associations
between two objects of the same class.

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 employee employer
person Works-for company

Employee Employer
Ram TCS
Mohan Wipro

Role names for an association

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ordering

 If order of objects required

 Indicated by writing “{ordered}” next to
multiplicity dot for the role.

{ordered}
window screen
Visible-on

Ordered sets in an association

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Qualification
 It relates two classes and a qualifier.
 Qualifier is a special attribute that reduces the
effective multiplicity of an association.
 One-to-many or many-to-many may be
qualified that can be reduced to one-to-one.
( but not always)
 It distinguishes among the set of objects at the
many end of an association.
 A qualified association can also be considered
a form of ternary association.

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Directory File name File

A directory plus a file name yields a file

A qualified association

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 organization
Company office Person
officer

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Aggregation

 It is a part-of relationship
 It has transitivity property i.e. A is part of
B and B is part of C then A is part of C.
 It is anti symmetric i.e. if A is a part of B
then B is not a part of A.
 Aggregation is a special form of
association.

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document paragraph sentence

Aggregation

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Aggregation

 It is a form of association in which an

aggregate object is made of
components.
 Components are part of aggregate.
 Aggregate is inherently transitive i.e. an
aggregate has parts which may in turn
have parts.

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Aggregation vs. Association

 Aggregation is a special form of

association.
 If two objects are tightly bound by a part-
whole relationship, it is an aggregation.
 If two objects are usually considered as
independent even though they may often
be linked, it is an association.

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 A company is an aggregation of its
divisions which are in turn aggregations
of their departments; a company is
indirectly an aggregation of departments.
 A company is not an aggregation of its
employees since the company and
person are independent objects of equal
structure and status.

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company division department

Work for

person

Aggregation and Association

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Generalization

 It is a relationship between base class

and sub class.
 It is “is-a” relationship because each
instance of a sub class is an instance of
super class as well.

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 Figure
Color
Pos
Thickness
Move
Select
Display
rotate

0D 1D 2D

Point Line Arc Spline Polygon circle

Inheritance for graphic figure

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Aggregation vs. Generalization
 Aggregation relates instances.
 Two distinct objects are involved; one of them
is a part of the other.
 Generalization relates classes.
 Aggregation is often called “a part of”
relationship; generalization is often called “a
kind-of” or “is-a” relationship.
 Aggregation is sometimes called an “and
relationship” and generalization refers to “or
relationship”

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 lamp

base cover switch wiring

fluorescent incandescent

part1 part2 part3 part4

Aggregation and generalization

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 Aggregation can be fixed, variable or
recursive.
 A fixed aggregate has a fixed structure;
the number and types of sub parts are
predefined e.g. lamp.
 A variable aggregation has a finite
number of levels but number of parts
may vary e.g. company.

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 A recursive aggregation contains directly
or indirectly an instance of the same kind
of aggregate; the number of potential
levels is unlimited e.g. computer
program.

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 program

block Recursive aggregate

Compound Simple
statement statement

 Simple Statement:
x=i;
 Block(combination of more than one simple statements):
++i;
x=i;
 Compound Statement(single statement combines work of multiple
statement optionally blocks):
x=++i;

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Propagation of operations

 Propagation (triggering) is automatic

application of an operation to a network
of objects when the operation is applied
to some starting object.
 E.g. moving an aggregation moves its
parts; the move operation propagates to
the parts.

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 A person owns multiple documents.
Each document is composed of
paragraphs that are in turn composed of
characters. The copy operation
propagates from documents to
paragraphs to characters. Copying a
paragraph copies all the characters in it.
 The operation does not propagate in
reverse direction.

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 Propagation can be possible for save,
destroy, print and lock.

Person Document copy Paragraph copy Character

owns
copy copy copy

Propagation of operations

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Abstract classes
 An abstract class is a class that has no
direct instances but whose descendent
classes have direct instances.
 A concrete class is a class that is
instantiable i.e. it can have direct
instances.
 A concrete class may have abstract
subclasses but they must have concrete
descendents.

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 only concrete classes may be leaf
classes in the inheritance tree.

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Abstract & concrete class

subclass subclass
1+ class
1+
Has subclasses
Has subclasses

instance concrete abstract superclass

Direct
instances

superclass Non leaf class Leaf class

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 Abstract classes organize features common to
several classes
 Abstract classes are frequently used to define
methods to be inherited by subclasses.
 An abstract class can define methods to be
inherited by subclasses.
 An abstract operation defines the form of an
operation for which each concrete subclass
must provide its own implementation.

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 Abstract class & abstract operation

Employee
Earning
Pay {abstract}

SLRD Employee HNRY Employee

HRLY Employee
Earning Earning
Earning
pay pay
pay
Grouping Constructs:

 (a) Module- A module is a logical construct for grouping classes,

associations, and generalizations. It captures one view of a situation.
 For example: Let us say, electrical, plumbing, etc. are different views of a
building.
 An object model consists of one or more modules. Class names and
association names must be unique within a module. Module names are
usually listed at the top of each sheet. The same class may be
referenced in many modules.
 b) Sheet- A sheet is a mechanism for breaking a large object model
down into a series of pages. A sheet is a single printed page. Each
module consists of one or more sheets.
 Each sheet has a title and a name or number. Each
association/generalization appears on a single sheet. Classes may
appear on multiple sheets.

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Multiple inheritance
 It permits to have more than one super class
and to inherit features from all parents.
 A class with more than one super class is
called a join class.
 A feature from the ancestor class found along
more than one path is inherited only once.
 Conflicts among parallel definitions create
ambiguities that must be resolved in
implementation.

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 vehicle

Landvehicle Watervehicle Overlapping Classes

car amphibiousvehicle boat

[ join class ]

Multiple inheritance from overlapping classes

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 A hollow triangle indicates disjoint
subclasses while a solid triangle
indicates overlapping subclasses.

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Metadata

 Metadata is data that describes other

data.
 The definition of a class is metadata.
 Models are metadata since they
describe the things being modeled.
 RDBMS uses metadata.

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 A class describes a set of instances of a
given form.
 Instantiation relates a class to its
instances.
 The dotted arrows connect the instances
to the class.
 It is also useful for documenting
examples and test cases.

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 (Person)
Name=ABC
Age=40
Weight=40
Person
Name
Age
weight
(Person)
Name=XYZ
Age=29
Weight=70

Notation for instantiation

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Class descriptors
 Classes are meta objects and not real world objects.
 Class descriptors have features and they have their
own classes which are called meta classes.
 A class attribute describes a value common to an
entire class of objects rather than data particular to
each instance.
 Class attributes are useful for storing default
information for creating new objects or summary
information about instances of the class.
 A class operation is an operation on the class itself.
 The most common is to create new instances.
 Operations on class structure are class operations.

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Class descriptors

Window
Size:rectangle
Visibility:boolean
Default_size:rectangle

Display
New_window
Highest_priority_window

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Candidate keys
 A candidate key is a minimal set of
attributes that uniquely identifies an
object or link.
 A class may have one or more candidate
keys each of which may have different
combinations and numbers of attributes.
 Each candidate key constrains the
instances in a class.
 Notation is {}

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constraints
 These are functional relation between
entities of an object model.
 Entity includes objects, classes,
attributes, links and associations.
 A constraint restricts the values that
entities can assume.
 Simple constraints may be placed in
object models and complex may be in
functional model.
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 Window
boss
Employee Length
width
salary

{ 0.8 <= length / width < = 1.5 }

{ salary < = boss.salary }

Constraints on objects

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General constraints

 It must be expressed with natural

languages or equations.
 Draw a dotted line between classes
involved in the constraint and specify the
details with comments in braces.
Member_of
Person {subset } Committee
Chair_of

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Derived objects, links and attributes

 The notation for a derived entity is a

slash or diagonal line on the corner of a
class box, on an association line or in
front of an attribute.
 Show the constraint that determines the
derived value. (optional)
Person
Current date
Birthdate
/age
{ age = currentdate – birthdate }

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