2140709

Computer Networks

Unit-5
The Link layer and
Local area networks

Prof. Maulik D. Trivedi

9998265805
[email protected]
 Introduction
 Host and routers are as nodes.
 Communication channels that
connect adjacent nodes along
global ISP
communication path, its called
links.
✔ Wired links
✔ Wireless links
✔ LANs
 In this layer, Packet is form of
frame from encapsulate
datagram.
 This layer has responsibility of
transferring datagram from one
node to physically adjacent node
over a link.
Unit: 5 – The Link layer and Local area networks 2 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Link Layer Services
 Framing
✔ Encapsulate datagram into frame.
✔ Adding header and trailer.
 Link Access
✔ “MAC” addresses used in frame headers to identify source and destination.
It is different from IP address.
 Reliable delivery
✔ If this layer protocol provides reliable delivery service, it guarantees to
move each network-layer datagram across the link without error.
✔ A link-layer reliable delivery service can be achieved with acknowledgments
and retransmissions.
 Flow Control
✔ Pacing between adjacent sending and receiving nodes.

Unit: 5 – The Link layer and Local area networks 3 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Link Layer Services – Cont…
 Error Detection & Correction
✔ Errors caused by signal attenuation and noise.
✔ Receiver detects presence of errors.
✔ Sender send signal for retransmission or drops frame.
✔ Receiver identifies and corrects bit error(s) without resorting to
retransmission.

Unit: 5 – The Link layer and Local area networks 4 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Error Detection & Correction Technique
 Techniques for error detection
✔ Parity Check
✔ Checksum Method
✔ Cyclic Redundancy Check

Unit: 5 – The Link layer and Local area networks 5 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Parity Check
 One extra bit is sent along with the original bits to make number
of 1s either even in case of even parity, or odd in case of odd
parity.
 For example, if even parity is used and number of 1s is even then
one bit with value 0 is added. This way number of 1s remains
even.
 If the number of 1s is odd, to make it even a bit with value 1 is
added.

Unit: 5 – The Link layer and Local area networks 6 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Parity Check – Cont…
 Receiver counts the number of 1s in a frame. If the count of 1s is
even and even parity is used, the frame is considered to be not-
corrupted and is accepted.
 If the count of 1s is odd and odd parity is used, the frame is still
not corrupted.
 If a single bit flips in transit, the receiver can detect it by counting
the number of 1s.
 But when more than one bits are erroneous, then it is very hard
for the receiver to detect the error.

Unit: 5 – The Link layer and Local area networks 7 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Checksum
 Data is divided into k segments each of m bits.
 Sender Side: Segments are added using 1’s complement
arithmetic to get the sum.
 Sum is complemented to get the checksum.
 Checksum segment is sent along with the data segments.
 Receiver Side: All received segments are added using 1’s
complement arithmetic to get complemented sum.
 If the result is zero, the received data is accepted; otherwise
discarded.

Unit: 5 – The Link layer and Local area networks 8 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Checksum - Example
 Add two 16-bit integers word

Sender Receiver
1 1110011001100110 1 1110011001100110
1 1101010101010101 1 1101010101010101
wraparound 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1011101110111011
+ +
sum 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1011101110111100
sum
checksum 0100010001000011 1 0100010001000011
1111111111111111
If one of the bits is a 0, then we can
say that error introduced into packet

Note: when adding numbers, a carryout from the most significant

bit needs to be added to the result
Unit: 5 – The Link layer and Local area networks 9 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Cyclic Redundancy Check
 CRC is the most powerful and easy to implement technique.
 CRC is based on binary division.
 In CRC, a sequence of redundant bits, are appended to the end of data
unit so that the resulting data unit becomes exactly divisible by a second,
predetermined binary number.
 At the destination, the incoming data unit is divided by the same number.
 If at this step there is no remainder, the data unit is assumed to be
correct and is therefore accepted.
 A remainder indicates that the data unit has been damaged in transit and
therefore must be rejected.
 The binary number, which is (r+1) bit in length, can also be considered as
the coefficients of a polynomial, called Generator Polynomial.

Unit: 5 – The Link layer and Local area networks 10 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
CRC –
Example:1
 CRC – Example:2

Unit: 5 – The Link layer and Local area networks 12 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Multiple Access Links
 There are two types of network links:
 A point-to-point link consists of a single sender at one end of the
link and a single receiver at the other end of the link.
 A broadcast link, can have multiple sending and receiving nodes all
connected to the same, single, shared broadcast channel.
 The term broadcast is used here because when any one node
transmits a frame, the channel broadcasts the frame and each of
the other nodes receives a copy.

Unit: 5 – The Link layer and Local area networks 13 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Multiple Access Protocols
Categories of Multiple Access Protocol:
1. Channel Partitioning Protocols
✔ Divide channel into smaller “pieces” (time slots, frequency, code)
✔ Allocate piece to node for exclusive use
✔ Examples of channel partitioning protocols
 TDMA: Time Division Multiple Access
 FDMA: Frequency Division Multiple Access
 CDMA: Code Division Multiple Access

Unit: 5 – The Link layer and Local area networks 14 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Multiple Access Protocols – Cont…
2. Random Access Protocols
✔ Channel is not divided and allow collisions.
✔ “Recover” from collisions
✔ Examples of random access MAC (Medium Access Control) protocols
 Pure ALOHA
 Slotted ALOHA
 CSMA, CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA

Unit: 5 – The Link layer and Local area networks 15 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Multiple Access Protocols – Cont…
3. Taking-turns protocols
✔ Nodes take turns but nodes with more to send can take longer turns.
✔ Examples of taking-turns protocols
 Polling
 Token passing

Unit: 5 – The Link layer and Local area networks 16 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 TDMA: Time Division Multiple Access
 Suppose the channel supports N nodes and that the transmission rate of
the channel is R bps.
 TDM divides time into time frames and further divides each time frame
into N time slots.
 Each time slot is then6-slot
assigned to one of the N 6-slot
nodes.
frame frame
1 3 4 1 3 4

 Example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have packet, slots 2,5,6 idle

 Major drawbacks: First, A node is limited to an average rate of R/N bps
even when it is the only node with packets to send.
 Second drawback is that a node must always wait for its turn in the
transmission sequence again, even when it is the only node with a frame
to send.

Unit: 5 – The Link layer and Local area networks 17 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 FDMA: Frequency Division Multiple Access
 Channel spectrum divided into frequency bands.
 Each station assigned fixed frequency band.
 Unused transmission time in frequency bands go idle.
 Example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have packet, frequency bands 2,5,6
idle
time

frequency bands
FDM cable

Unit: 5 – The Link layer and Local area networks 18 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 CDMA: Code Division Multiple Access
 CDMA assigns a different code to each node, While TDM and FDM
assign time slots and frequencies respectively.
 Each node then uses its unique code to encode the data bits it
sends.
 If the codes are chosen carefully, CDMA networks have the
wonderful property that different nodes can transmit
simultaneously.
 Their respective receivers correctly receive a sender’s encoded data
bits in spite of interfering transmissions by other nodes.
 Example: Used in military and widespread civilian use, particularly
in cellular telephony.
 Because CDMA’s use is so tightly tied to wireless channels.
Unit: 5 – The Link layer and Local area networks 19 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Pure Aloha Protocol
 It allows users to transmit whenever they have data to be sent.
 Senders wait to see if a collision occurred (after whole message has
been sent).
 If collision occurs, each station involved waits a random amount of time
then tries again.
 Systems in which multiple users share a common channel in a way that
can lead to conflicts are widely known as contention systems.
 Whenever two frames try to occupy the channel at the same time, there
will be a collision and both will be garbled.
 If the first bit of a new frame overlaps with just the last bit of a frame
almost finished, both frames will be totally destroyed and both will have
to be retransmitted later.

Unit: 5 – The Link layer and Local area networks 20 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Pure ALOHA – Cont…
 Frames are transmitted at completely arbitrary times.
 The throughput of the Pure ALOHA is maximized when the frames are of
uniform length.
 The formula to calculate the throughput of the Pure ALOHA is
S-=G*e-2G
 The throughput is maximum when G=1/2 which is 18% of the total
transmitted data frames.

Unit: 5 – The Link layer and Local area networks 21 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Slotted Aloha
 It was invented to improve the efficiency of pure ALOHA as
chances of collision in pure ALOHA are very high.
 The time of the shared channel is divided into discrete intervals
called slots.
 The stations can send a frame only at the beginning of the slot and
only one frame is sent in each slot.

Unit: 5 – The Link layer and Local area networks 22 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Slotted Aloha – Cont…

 If any station is not able to place the frame onto the channel at the
beginning of the slot then the station has to wait until the beginning of
the next time slot.
 The formula to calculate the throughput of the Slotted ALOHA is S=G*e-
G

 The throughput is maximum when G=1 which is 37% of the total

transmitted data frames.
 37% of the time slot is empty, 37% successes and 26% collision.
Unit: 5 – The Link layer and Local area networks 23 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 CSMA/CD (CSMA with Collision Detection)
 If two stations sense the channel to be idle and begin transmitting
simultaneously, they will both detect the collision almost
immediately.
 Rather than finish transmitting, they should abruptly stop
transmitting as soon as the collision is detected.
 Quickly terminating damaged frames saves time and bandwidth.
 This protocol, known as CSMA/CD (CSMA with Collision Detection)
is widely used on LANs in the MAC sub layer.

Unit: 5 – The Link layer and Local area networks 24 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 CSMA/CD – Cont…

 At the point marked t0, a station has finished transmitting its frame.
Any other station having a frame to send may now attempt to do so.
 After a station detects a collision, it aborts transmission, waits a
random period of time, and then tries again, assuming that no other
station has started transmitting in the meantime.
 Therefore, CSMA/CD will consist of alternating contention and
transmission periods, with idle periods occurring when all stations
are quiet.
Unit: 5 – The Link layer and Local area networks 25 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Polling
 It requires one of the nodes to be designated as a master node.
 The master node polls each of the nodes in a round-robin fashion.
 The master node first sends a message to node 1, saying that it
(node 1) can transmit up to some maximum number of frames.
 After node 1 transmits some frames, the master node tells node 2
it (node 2) can transmit up to the maximum number of frames.
 The master node can determine when a node has finished sending
its frames by observing the lack of a signal on the channel.

Unit: 5 – The Link layer and Local area networks 26 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Polling – Cont…
 The procedure continues in this manner, with the master node
polling each of the nodes in a cyclic manner.

 The polling protocol eliminates the collisions and empty slots that
plague random access protocols.

Unit: 5 – The Link layer and Local area networks 27 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Token Passing
 There is no master node.
 A small, special-purpose frame known as a
token is exchanged among the nodes in some
fixed order.
 For example, node 1 might always send the
token to node 2, node 2 might always send the
token to node 3, and node N might always send
the token to node 1.
 When a node receives a token, it holds onto
the token only if it has some frames to
transmit; otherwise, it immediately forwards
the token to the next node.
 If failure of one node can crash the entire
channel. Or if a node accidentally neglects to
release the token.

Unit: 5 – The Link layer and Local area networks 28 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Ethernet
 Ethernet is one of the widely used local area network (LAN)
technology.
1. Switched Ethernet
✔ It gives dedicated 10 Mbps bandwidth on each of its ports.
✔ On each of the ports one can connect either a thick/thin segment or a
computer.
2. Fast Ethernet
✔ The 802.u or the fast Ethernet was approved by the IEEE 802 Committee.
✔ It uses the same frame format, same CSMA/CD protocol and same interface
as the 802.3, but uses a data transfer rate of 100 Mbps instead of 10 Mbps.
✔ Fast Ethernet is based entirely on 10-Base-T.

Unit: 5 – The Link layer and Local area networks 29 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Ethernet – Cont…
3. Gigabit Ethernet
✔ Gigabit Ethernet is carried primarily on optical fiber (with very short
distances possible on copper media).
✔ Existing Ethernet LANs with 10 and 100 Mbps cards can feed into a Gigabit
Ethernet backbone.
✔ An alternative technology that competes with Gigabit Ethernet is ATM.
✔ A newer standard, 10-Gigabit Ethernet is also becoming available.
 E.g. 100-Base-T

Unit: 5 – The Link layer and Local area networks 30 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Bit Stuffing
 In a bit-oriented protocol, the data to send is a series of bits.
 In order to distinguish frames, most protocols use a bit pattern of
8-bit length (01111110) as flag at the beginning and end of each
frame.
 Here also cause the problem of appearance of flag in the data part
to deal with this an extra bit added.
 This method is called bit stuffing.
 If a 0 and five successive 1 bits are encountered, an extra 0 is
added.
 The receiver node removes the extra-added zero.

Unit: 5 – The Link layer and Local area networks 31 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Bit Stuffing - Example

Unit: 5 – The Link layer and Local area networks 32 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Byte Stuffing
 Problem of resynchronization by having each frame start and end
with special bytes.
 A flag byte is used to separate the frame as both the starting and
ending delimiter.
 This technique is called byte stuffing or character stuffing.
 In this way, if the receiver ever loses synchronization, it can just
search for the flag byte to find the end of the current frame.
 Two consecutive flag bytes indicate the end of one frame and start
of the next one.

Unit: 5 – The Link layer and Local area networks 33 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Byte Stuffing - Example
 To solve this problem, is to have the sender's data link layer insert a
special escape byte (ESC) just before each "accidental" flag byte in the
data.
 The data link layer on the receiving end removes the escape byte before
the data are given to the network layer.

Unit: 5 – The Link layer and Local area networks 34 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
 It is a protocol for mapping an Internet Protocol address (IP
address) to a physical machine address that is recognized in the
local network.
 For example, in IP v4 - an address is 32 bits long.
 The physical machine address is also known as a Media Access
Control or MAC address.
 A table, usually called the ARP cache, is used to maintain a
correlation between each MAC address and its corresponding IP
address.
 ARP provides the protocol rules for making this correlation and
providing address conversion in both directions.

Unit: 5 – The Link layer and Local area networks 35 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 How ARP Works?

Unit: 5 – The Link layer and Local area networks 36 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 How ARP Works?
 When an incoming packet arrives at a gateway, the gateway asks
the ARP program to find a physical host or MAC address that
matches the IP address.
 The ARP program looks in the ARP cache and, if it finds the address,
provides it so that the packet can be converted to the right packet
length and format and sent to the machine.
 If no entry is found for the IP address, ARP broadcasts a request
packet in a special format to all the machines on the LAN to see if
one machine knows that it has that IP address associated with it.
 A machine that recognizes the IP address as its own returns a reply.
 ARP updates the ARP cache for future reference and then sends the
packet to the MAC address that replied.

Unit: 5 – The Link layer and Local area networks 37 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
Thank You