Mechanical Measurements and Metrology: (Course Code:BME18ET2)
Mechanical Measurements and Metrology: (Course Code:BME18ET2)
METROLOGY(Course Code:BME18ET2)
TEXT BOOKS
• Mechanical Measurements, Beckwith Marangoni and Lienhard, Pearson Education, 6th Ed., 2006.
• Instrumentation, Measurement and Analysis, B C Nakra, K K Chaudhry, 4th Edition, McGraw Hill.
• Engineering Metrology, R.K. Jain, Khanna Publishers, Delhi, 2009
REFERENCE BOOKS:
Measurement system
Learning Objectives
Measurement systems
• The input signal is modified and amplified by signal conditioning and processing
• The output stage provides a value of the i/p measured being analogous to o/p.
• The output is either indicated or recorded by a scale and pointer, digital display, CRO,
incremental
changes,
i.e. the o/p = i/p, over a specified range.
The maximum deviation of the o/p from the i/p
BASIC DEFINITIONS
• A Resolution is the smallest change in a physical property that an instrument can sense /
detect reliably
• Resolution is the closeness of the reading of the measuring quantity with the true value /
standard.
Threshold
Drift
• The gradual shift in the indication or record of the instrument over an extended period
of time.
Zero Stability
• The ability of an instrument to return to the zero reading after the input signal comes
back to the zero value after the variations due to temperature, pressure, vibrations,
Loading effect
undistorted form.
System Response
• The characteristics of a measuring instrument is to transmit the input signal with all the
relevant information.
System Response
not repeat
BASIC DEFINITIONS
Dynamic Characteristics
1. Speed of response
Retardation type
2. Measuring lag
Time delay type
BASIC DEFINITIONS
Dynamic Characteristics
1. Speed of response:
The speed with which the measuring instrument responds to the changes in the
measured quantity.
BASIC DEFINITIONS
Dynamic Characteristics
2. Measuring lag:
quantity.
• Lag is normally due to the natural inertia of the measuring system.
BASIC DEFINITIONS
Dynamic Characteristics
2. Time delay type: measuring system begins to respond after a dead time to the
applied input.
Dead time: the time required by the measuring system to begin its response to a
with uncertainty.
2. Random errors
ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS
1. Systematic errors / Controllable errors
• If error the error deviates by a fixed amount from the true value.
1. Calibration errors
2. Ambient conditions
3. Deformation of workpiece
4. Avoidable errors
1. Calibration errors
values of standard temperature (20 ºC) and pressure (760 mmHg) conditions.
by 0.3 μm.
• Due to stylus pressure and elastic deformation and changes in workpiece shape may
occur.
4. Avoidable errors
• Datum errors
• Reading errors
• Effect of misalignment
• Zero errors
Transducer
s
Transduce
r
• Transfer efficiency
• Electrical transducers
• Mechanical transducers
• Electronic transducers
• The ratio of information sensed and delivered by the sensor, is transfer efficiency.
CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
The function of a transduction element is to transform the output from the sensing
Primary detector
transducers(Mechanical)
Based on Principle of Transduction
Passive transducer
Active transducer
2. Passive transducers or External powered type: They need external / auxiliary source of
power supply. E.g.: Resistive, Capacitive and Inductive ( LVDT)
Analog and Digital Transducers
E.g. Thermocouple
processing devices, so that the signal is appropriate before passing it on to the output
Design problems arise when the signals from the primary–secondary transducers are fed
into mechanical intermediate elements and these mechanical intermediate elements, like
Kinematic Linearity
Mechanical Amplification
• The effect of frictional force is amplified and is reflected back to the input as a
magnified load, proportion to the gain between the friction and the input.
• This effect is referred as the reflected frictional amplification.
• The effects of inertial forces are amplified and reflected back to the input
in
proportion to the gain
• Lost motion occurs when an input does not generate the analogous displacement
• At the output, both backlash and elastic deformation result in lost motion, which is
amplified by an amount equal to the gain between the source and the output.
Inherent Problems in Mechanical Systems
Temperature Problems
• The only option is to accept the effects due to temperature variations and devise the
• Active transducer does not require minimum circuitry for their operation.
2. Ballast circuits
3. Voltage-dividing circuits
Using Ohm’s law, the current indicated by the read-out circuit is given by the equation:
Input Circuitry
Simple current-sensitive circuits
• Maximum
current
flows
when
k
=
0,
i.e.
• The
output
variation
Ballast Circuit
• An electrical ballast is a device placed in series with a load to limit the amount of current
in an electrical circuit.
• Rb = ballast resistor.
• In absence of Rb, the indicator will not indicate any change with variation in Rt ;always
• It is necessary to incorporate some value of resistance in the circuit to ensure its proper
functioning.
Let e0 = the voltage across
kRt
(transducer), following equation
the holds true:
Terminating devices
Terminating devices
• Relative displacement
• Digital form
Its advantage is that a beam of electrons with low inertia strikes the fluorescent screen,
generating an image that can rapidly change with varying voltage inputs to the system.
• The electron gun assembly comprises a heater, a cathode, a control grid, and accelerating anodes.
• The accelerating anodes, are positively charged, provides the striking velocity to the
emitted
electron stream.
• The electron beam, gaining necessary acceleration, passes through and vertical
horizontal deflection plates, which provide the basic movements in the X and Y directions.
• In order to facilitate free movement of emitted electrons, vacuum is created within the tube.
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
Oscillographs
• In CRO the output is visual in nature and in oscillograph it is traced on the paper.