Smoke Detectors

• Smoke detectors serve the purpose of early detection, notification, and

reaction. Some detectors are also used to activate mechanical or electrical
systems, such as dampers, doors, and electronic shutdown. Smoke detectors
have evolved into two principal types of devices:
• A detector that provides early detection and reports back to an alarm panel
to initiate evacuation alarms
• A detector that provides some type of signal to initiate one of the actions
discussed above.
• Smoke Detector — Alarminitiating device designed to actuate when visible
or invisible products of combustion (other than fire gases) are present in the
room or space where the unit is installed.
• Smoke detection is the preferred automatic alarm device in such occupancy types as residences
and health and institutional care facilities because smoke detectors sense the presence of a fire
much more quickly than heat-detection devices. Because of the dangers of toxic fire gases, an
early warning can mean the difference between a safe escape and no escape at all.
• Many factors affect the performance of smoke detectors, including:
• Type and amount of combustibles
• Rate of fire growth
• Proximity of the detector to the fire
• Ventilation within the area involved
• Smoke detectors and smoke alarms are tested, certified, and listed based on their performance
by third-party testing services. Regardless of their principle of operation, all smoke detectors are
required to respond to the same fire tests. Two basic methods of smoke detection are in use:
photoelectric and ionization. The allowable sensitivity ranges for both types of smoke detectors
are established by UL. The following sections also describe duct and video based detectors.
Photoelectric Smoke Detectors
• Photoelectric smoke detection works on all types of fires and usually responds more quickly to smoldering fires than
ionization smoke detection. Photoelectric smoke detection is best suited for areas containing overstuffed furniture
and other areas where smoldering fires can occur. A photoelectric device consists of a photoelectric cell coupled with
a specific light source. The photoelectric cell functions in one of two ways to detect smoke: projected-beam
application (obscuration) or refractory application (scattered). The projected-beam application style of photoelectric
detector uses a beam of light focused across the area being monitored onto a photoelectric-receiving device such as
a photodiode. The cell constantly converts the beam into current, which keeps a switch open. When smoke interferes
with or obscures the light beam, the amount of current produced is lessened. The detector’s circuitry senses the
change in current, and initiates an alarm when a current change threshold is crossed . Projected-beam application
smoke detectors are particularly useful in buildings where a large area of coverage is desired, such as in churches,
atriums, or warehouses. Rather than wait for smoke particles to collect at the top of an open area and sound an
alarm, the projected-beam application smoke detector is strategically positioned to sound an alarm more quickly.
Projected-beam application smoke detectors need to be mounted on a stable stationary surface. Any movement due
to temperature variations, structural movement, and vibrations can cause the light beams to misalign. A refractory
application photoelectric smoke detector uses a beam of light from a light-emitting diode (LED) that passes through a
small chamber at a point distant from the light source. Normally, the light does not strike the photocell or
photodiode. When smoke particles enter the light beam, light strikes the particles and reflects in random directions
onto the photosensitive device, causing the detector to generate an alarm signal
• An ionization smoke detector contains a sensing chamber consisting of two electrically
charged plates (one positive and one negative) and a radioactive source for ionizing the
air between the plates. A small amount of Americium 241 that is adjacent to the opening
of the chamber ionizes the air particles as they enter. The ionized particles free electrons
from the negative electron plate and the electrons travel to the positive plate. Thus, a
small ionization current measurable by electronic circuitry flows between the two plates.
Products of combustion, which are much larger than the ionized air molecules, enter the
chamber and collide with the ionized air molecules. As the two interact, they combine
and the total number of ionized particles is reduced. This action results in a decrease in
the chamber current between the plates. When a predetermined threshold current is
crossed, an alarm is initiated . Changes in humidity and atmospheric pressure in the
room can cause an ionization detector to malfunction and initiate a nuisance alarm. To
compensate for the possible effects of humidity and pressure changes,
• a dual-chamber ionization detector that uses two ionization chambers has been developed and may be found in many
jurisdictions. One chamber senses particulate matter, humidity, and atmospheric pressure. The other chamber is a
reference chamber that is partially closed to outside air and affected only by humidity and atmospheric pressure. Both
chambers are monitored electronically and their outputs are compared. When the humidity or atmospheric pressure
changes, both chambers respond equally to the change, but remain balanced. When particles of combustion enter the
sensing chamber, its current decreases while the reference chamber remains unchanged. The imbalance in current is
detected electronically and an alarm is initiated. An ionization smoke detector works satisfactorily on all types of fires,
although it generally responds more quickly to flaming fires than photoelectric smoke detectors. The ionization detector is
an automatic resetting type and is best suited for rooms that contain highly combustible materials, such as the following:
• Cooking fat/grease • Flammable liquids • Newspapers • Paint • Cleaning solutions An air-sampling smoke detector is a
type of ionization detector that is designed to continuously monitor a small amount of air from the protected area for the
presence of smoke particles. There are two basic types of air-sampling smoke detectors. The most common one is the
cloud-chamber type (Figure 14.33). This detector uses a small air pump to draw sample air into a highhumidity chamber
within the detector. The detector then imparts the high humidity to the sample and lowers the pressure in the test
chamber. Moisture condenses on any smoke particles in the test chamber, which creates a cloud inside the chamber. The
detector triggers an alarm signal when the density of this cloud exceeds a predetermined level. The second type of air-
sampling smoke detector is composed of a system of pipes spread over the ceiling of the protected area (Figure 14.34). A
fan in the detector/controller unit draws air from the building through the pipes. The air is then sampled using a
photoelectric sensor.