UNIVERSITY OF GONDAR

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF HWRE
WEL COME TO BRIDGE AND
CULVERT HYDRAULICS

1
By: Eskender A.
 Chapter One
Introduction of Bridge & Culvert

 General Introduction

 Definition of Bridge and Culvert

 Brief History of Bridge Development

 Components of Bridge

 Bridge Vs Culvert

 Hydraulic failure of Bridge and Culvert

2
 General Introduction
What is Bridge?
A bridge is A structure that supports a roadway or other access

way over a water body by means of a span providing passage

over on obstacle.
The obstacle may be a river, a valley, a road or a railway line.

This type of structure does not have a constructed structural

invert (bottom) and therefore does not fully enclose the channel
that it spans.
It may consist of a deck supported on abutments or piers, open‐

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bottom box or half‐pipe, or other structural arch.
 Cont…
 The passage may be for a highway, railway traffic, pedestrian,

a canal or pipe line.

4
Cont…

5
 Cont…
What is Culvert?
 Culvert:- A structure that supports a roadway or other access way over

a water body by means of a fully enclosed conduit (complete pipe or

box)
 This type of structures have a constructed bottom and does not

typically have abutments or piers.

 a structure that is designed hydraulically to take advantage of

submergence to increase hydraulic capacity. It is also a structure used

to convey surface runoff through embankments
 Culverts prevent water logging, flood, and erosion, and allows water to

6 flow its natural course under a roadway or railway

 Cont…

Common culvert types include circular (round) pipe,

elliptical pipe, pipe‐arch and square or rectangular box.

7
 Brief historical Development of Bridge
 The Historical development of bridges is closely linked with

the history of human civilization.

 Nature fashioned the first bridges in different forms:

 Tree fallen accidentally across a stream is the earliest beam

type bridge.
 The natural rock arch formed by erosion of loose soil below

is the earliest form of arch bridges.

 Branches hanging from tree to tree that allow monkeys to

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cross were for runners of suspension bridges.
 Tree fallen Bridge rock stone Bridge
90m span natural stone arch

9 Natural stone Bridge

 Cont…
 Primitive bridges:
 Timber trestle construction (Swiss)
 Timber platform suspended on ropes (India)

 Rope bridge (China, Japan)

 Timber cantilever bridge (India)
 Pontoon bridge (Persia)

 The oldest bridge still surviving is a pedestrian stone slab bridge across
the Meles River in Turkey (2800 BC).

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 Early bridges

Multi-span masonry railway

(Switzerland) Built 1900

'Stari Most' 1566, Turkey

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 Cont…

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 Cont…
Pont Vecchio (Florence)
Italian Renaissance bridge built in 1340.

13
 Cont…

France, Built in 1177-1187

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 Bridge Construction in Ethiopia
 Ethiopia is one of a mountainous country in Africa, since rough terrain,
deep gorges, rivers, …..
1. On Blue Nile near Alata , Almeida Bridge ,Thick log is placed.(The 1st
Bridge)
2. Bridge between Gondar and Gojam-Portugal Bridge (was constructed
around 1625E.C ).
3. After 1667E.C many Bridges were constructed in Gondar and Lake Tana
area.
4. For instance in Addis Abeba ,Kebena and Ras Mekonnen (1902E.C)
bridges were constructed.
5.Abay #4 Bridge was constructed in 1959 E.C(13 span RC girder bridge-
Located
15 in Bahir dar).
 Major bridges in Ethiopia

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17
18
 Components of Bridge
Superstructure : Structural parts of the bridge that provide the

horizontal span [AASHTO3.2]

Substructure: Structural parts of the bridge that support the

horizontal span [AASHTO3.2]

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20
 COMPARISONS BETWEEN CULVERTS & BRIDGES
 At many sites, either a bridge or a culvert will fulfill the

structural and hydraulic requirements. The structural choice

should be based on:
 ! Risk of property damage,

 ! Construction and maintenance costs

 ! Traffic safety,

 ! Environmental considerations,

 ! Risk of failure, and

 ! Aesthetic considerations.
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 Cont…

22
 Cont…

Culverts are used:

 Where bridges are not hydraulically required

 Where debris and ice potential are tolerable

 Where more economical than a bridge etc.

Bridges are used:

 Where culverts are impractical

 Where more economical than a culvert

 To satisfy land-use and access requirements

 To mitigate environmental concerns not satisfied by a culvert

 To accommodate ice and large debris.

23  If you have heavy sediment loads or moving boulders. etc

 Hydraulic causes of bridge failure
 Smith (1976, 1977) studied 143 bridge failures that occurred throughout

the world between 1847 and 1975.

 Almost half of the failures were due to floods.

 White et al. (1992) commented on bridge failures in the USA and

observed that the most common cause was floods and the other actions
of water.
 More specifically, two factors were identified:

One was scour, and the second was debris piled against the structure .
Of the two, damage caused by scouring of the bottom material around
the foundation (most of the time around piers & abutments) tends to be

24
the most common.
  Scour include lateral erosion of the riverbanks in the vicinity of a

bridge . This may result in the flow approaching the bridge at a

skewed angle instead of perpendicularly, greatly increasing the
potential for failure of the piers, abutments and highway
embankments.

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 Lateral erosion downstream of the Bridge .The line of the original
river bank is shown by the dashes. Changes of this type can
significantly alter the angle at which the flow hits the piers and thus
26 affect scour depths.
 Debris that obstructs the river channel either upstream or downstream

of the structure may be sufficient to change the water levels at the site
significantly and reduce the hydraulic performance of the
bridge/culvert.
 The blockage may cause the river to change course

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 Inadequate waterway openings:- if a bridge/culvert is seriously
damaged or destroyed by flood then possibly the bridge/culvert
waterway was not large enough.
 The waterway openings of the bridges/culverts are too narrow that the

resulting water velocities could easily remove the sedimentary bed

materials and erode the foundations.
 As far as the height of the opening is concerned, it has been suggested

that the soffit should be 0.6 – 1.0m above the design flood level (bridge).
 Location (site selection):- Usually the alignment of a highway will be

selected to minimize the cost of the bridges/culvert without significantly

adding to the total length of the road.
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 Cont…

 The optimum location and type of crossing is often the one that is

most economical in terms of both initial construction and long-

term maintenance.
 Select the bridge/culvert location that minimize the impact to the

stream as much as possible.

 If the waterway is made too narrow any economic advantage is

lost because expensive river training works will be needed to

compensate. ( e.g. For Semi-stable and unstable river channels,
migrates slowly or sudden and permanent change of course.)
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 Chapter Two
Types of Bridges and Culverts
 Types of Bridges

 Advantage and Dis-advantages of Bridges

 Types of Culverts

 Advantage and Dis-advantages of Culverts

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 1.Based on Function

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 Pedestrian Bridge

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 Highway Bridge

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 Railway Bridge

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 Aqueducts (water carrying)

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 Utility Bridge(Pipeline )

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2

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3

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 Timber Bridge
 use for short span length & short life span

 For light live load

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 Masonry Bridge
 use for short span length & small Depth
 very durable

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 Reinforced Concrete Bridge
 Reinforced Concrete bridge may be
-Cast in place/precast -Reinforced Concrete
-Pre-stressed (pre-tensioned or post-tensioned)
 Advantage of Reinforced concrete Bridges
-Durable-Long life time
-Low cost on maintenance
-Better resistance against impact load
-Better resistance to temperature changes
 Disadvantage of concrete superstructure
-Require longer construction time
-Difficult to widen and rebuild
-self-weight of the structure is high
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Reinforced Concrete Box Girder Bridge

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 Composite Bridge
 Composite Bridge is made from two different material usually
from Concrete-Steel Composite .
Deck from reinforced concrete
Primary longitudinal members from steel or Timber
 Advantages of composite girders
High load carrying capacity
Saves formwork [w.r.t. concrete]
Quicker in construction [w.r.t. concrete]
Increased stiffness of a floor system [w.r.t. steel]

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 Composite Bridge

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 Pre-Stressed Concrete Bridge

 If concrete material is placed under compression before

applying the loads , then it is call pre-stressed concrete .

Pre-stressed Concrete Girder

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 4.Based on structural configuration
 Based on Structural form Bridge classified into:-

Arch Bridges

Slab Bridges

Deck-Girder Bridges (T-Girder)

Box Girder Bridges

 Truss Bridges

 plate Girder Bridge

 Cable-stayed Bridges

Suspension Bridges
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 Arch Bridges

 An arch bridge is a bridge with abutments at each end

shaped as a curved arch. Arch bridges work by transferring

the weight of the bridge and its loads partially into a
horizontal thrust restrained by the abutments at either side
 It is durable ,strong and not easy to construct

 Can be used the span range of 35m to 200m using RC /Steel.

 arch form is best suited to deep gorges with steep rocky banks

 Masonry Arch Bridge limited to short span length

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48
 Steel Arch Bridges Masonry Arch Bridge

Rc Arch Bridges
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 Slab Bridges
Slab Bridges (RC) are a flat horizontal Deck with out beam
and used for short span (7m-12m).
consisting of a reinforced-concrete slab resting on abutments.

 Advantage of Slab Bridge

-Less labor and form work
-Simple to arrange reinforcement
-simple to Construct and pleasing in appearance
 Disadvantage of Slab Bridge
- Not economical for longer spans
- larger dead load
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 Slab Bridge

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 Deck-Girder (T)Bridges
 Deck-Girder Bridges (RC) are whose horizontal Deck
supported by Girder and used for short span (13m-26m).

 Advantage of T-Girder Bridge

-Gives wider span range compared with slab bridge
-high resistance for bending ,Shear , deflection
 Disadvantage of T-Girder Bridge
-inexpensive to build compared with slab bridge
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-construction is complex than slab bridge
 T-Girder Bridge

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 Box-Girder Bridges
 Box-Girder bridges (RC) are bridges in which the main 
beams  comprise  girders  in the shape of a hollow box.
 In such bridges a horizontal Deck provided at top and bottom
supported by Girder and used for medium span (26m-50m).
 Advantage of Box-Girder Bridge
-Reduce the requirement for support points , this results in
giving wider span range compared with T-Girder bridge
-high resistance for bending ,Shear , Torsion, deflection
 Reduces the slab thickness and self-weight of bridge
 Cost effective
 Greater strength per unit area of concrete
 Quality assurance, as precast girders are made off-site

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 Continue…
 Disadvantage of Box-Girder Bridge
-Completely difficult to construct
Structural steel girders are costly
Logistical inefficiencies and transportation cost

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 Box-Girder Bridge

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 Truss Bridges

 A truss bridge is a bridge whose load-

bearing superstructure is composed of a truss, a structure
of connected elements, usually forming triangular units or
other stable shapes.

 Advantage of truss Bridge

 Truss frame can support a greater span distances with
minimal material utilization ( economical)
 Light weight
 Very strong (the strength comes when the steel frames are
formed to triangles)
 Adaptable to any place where a bridge is needed

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 Cont…

Disadvantages of truss Bridge

 Difficult to maintain & has higher maintenance cost.
 Design is complicated.
 poor in Aesthetics.
Waste of materials (If even just one small part of
construction goes wrong, a very large amount of
materials are wasted.)

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59
 Plate Girder Bridges
 Plate girder bridges are the bridges having their main carrying
structural system made of plate I-shaped girders, which are
suitable for simply supported spans up to 40m.
 Plate Girder bridges are a horizontal Steel Deck supported by
steel Girder and have better strength and offer wider span
distances and Good in Aesthetics.

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 Cable-stayed Bridges
 Cable stayed bridge are whose deck is suspended by multiple
cables that directly attached with towers or pylons.
 Cable stayed Bridge gives medium span up to 250m.
 Complex & expensive for construction.
 Construction will be completed with in short period of time.
 Good in poor soil condition b/c no Anchorage at end.

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63
 Suspension Bridges
 A suspension bridge is a type of bridge in which the deck
(the load-bearing portion) is hung below suspension cables
on vertical suspenders.
  The basic structural components of a suspension
bridge system include stiffening girders/trusses, the
main suspension cables, main towers, and the anchorages for
the cables at each end of the bridge.
 Complex ,expensive for construction & unsuitable for rail.
 It gives longer span length up 2000m & good in Aesthetic.
 The main cables support the weight of the bridge (Traffic)
and transfer the load to Towers and to the Anchorage.

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65
66
 Suspension Bridge

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 5.Based on Support condition
 Based on Bridge Supported condition b/n super structure and
sub-structure , Bridge may be…
- Simply supported Bridge
-Continuous Bridge
-Rigid frame Bridge
-Cantilever Bridge

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 Simply supported Bridges
 Simply supported bridge -If all the spans of the bridge are pin and
roller support b/n sub and super-structure.
 Advantage of Simply supported Bridges
-Analysis is very simple
-Good for strong soil
-Construction is very simple
 Disadvantage of Simply Supported Bridges
-more number of bearings
-greater width of pier, thus High flow obstruction
-Require more number of expansion joints
-depth of girder become high ,uneconomical
-High bending , shear , vibration and deflection

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 Simply supported Bridge

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 Continuous Bridges
 Continuous Bridges are their consecutive spans with out opening
and one bearing provided b/n super & sub strc.
 Advantage s of continuous Bridges
-Less number of bearings
-Reduced width of pier, thus less flow obstruction and less
amount of material
-Require less number of expansion joints through which both
the initial and maintenance cost become less.
-Lesser depth of girder, hence economical supports
-Lesser vibration and deflection
 Disadvantages of continuous Bridges
-Analysis is tedious and cumbersome
-Not suitable on yielding foundation
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 Continuous Bridge

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 Rigid Frame Bridges
 In rigid frame bridges, the decks are monolithically Connected
with the pier or the vertical supporting system.
 Advantages rigid frame bridges
Less moment in deck being partly transferred to the support
member
Better resistance against dynamic loads preferable used in
seismic regions
No bearings are required.
 Disadvantages rigid frame bridges
difficult for Construction
difficult for maintenance

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 Rigid frame Bridge

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 Cantilever Bridges
 Cantilever bridges were the solutions for large deflections caused

by heavy traffic on long span truss bridges.

 Advantages of cantilever bridges

-Less concrete and form work are required

-easy to construct at difficult crossing

-Fewer expansion joints are needed

 Disadvantages of cantilever bridges

-Requires more skill on the part of designer

-Difficult for maintenance

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 6.Based on span length
 Classification of bridge based on span length:
-Culvert: form L ≤ 6m
-Small span Bridges: form 7m < L ≤ 15m
-Medium span Bridges: form 16m ≤ L ≤ 50m
-Large Span Bridges: form 50m ≤ L≤ 150m
-Extra Large Span Bridges: form L ≥ 150m
Different Manuals recommend different span length.
7.Based on Life span
Classification based on slab length:-
-Temporary bridges
- Permanent bridges
- Semi-permanent bridges
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 8.Based on Horizontal arrangement
 Straight Bridges
 Skew Bridges
 Curved Bridges

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 9.Based on Movements
 Classification based on Super-structure Movement
Movable bridges
Fixed bridges

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 Types of Culverts
 Shapes: Numerous cross-sectional shapes are available. The most

commonly used shapes, circular, box (rectangular), elliptical, pipe , pipe-

arch, and arch.
 The shape selection is based on the cost of construction, the limitation on

upstream water surface elevation, roadway embankment height, and

hydraulic performance.
 The most commonly used culvert materials are concrete (reinforced and

non- reinforced), corrugated metal (aluminum or steel) and plastic (high

density polyethylene (HDPE) or polyvinyl chloride (PVC)).
 Less commonly used materials include clay, stone and wood, as might be

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found in historic culvert structures.
 Commonly
Used Culvert
Shapes

Commonly
Used open-
bottom Culvert
Shapes

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 Single Box culverts
with riprap

Multiple Box culverts

with riprap

Single pipe culverts

Arch culverts

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84
 MEL Culverts
 The Minimum Energy Loss (MEL) culverts are designed with
the concept of minimum head loss and nearly constant total
head along the waterway.
 The flow in the approach channel is contracted through a
streamlined inlet into the barrel where the channel width is
minimum, and then is expanded in a streamlined outlet before
being finally released into the downstream natural channel
 The flow through the structure is streamlined and therefore has
reduced turbulence, which, in turn, reduces the erosion
potential of the flow and minimizes the need for surface
protection.

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 Furthermore, due to the size, material requirements and increased
difficultly in construction, minimum energy culverts are
generally very expensive options and the benefits of these types
of culverts are arguable.

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Public safety considerations
87
 Typical Headwall-Wingwall Configurations

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 Culvert Inlet Configurations
 The hydraulic capacity of a culvert may be improved by
appropriate inlet selection.
 The provision of a more gradual flow transition will lessen the
energy loss and thus create a more hydraulically efficient inlet
condition. Beveled edges are therefore more efficient than square
edges.

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 CHAPTER THREE
HYDRAULICS OF BRIDGES AND
CULVERTS

# Reading Assignment (site investigation &

data required for bridge design)
90
 Cont…
Site
 Investigation is a systematic process to collect and record
all the necessary data, which will be needed or will help in the
Design and to avoid delay in Construction processes due to
site condition problems.
Site Investigation is used to maximize potential use of site.

Site Investigation is making Design more economical.

Aim
 of investigation is to select a suitable site from possible
alternatives at which a bridge can be built satisfying:-
 Economy
 Safety
 Traffic demand

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Aesthetics
  The first stage of design, the engineer should identifies
a preferred location for the bridge and decides on the type, size
and capacity of the structure.

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River site location
 Cont…

To arrive on the decisions field surveys and

information concerning (below) should be
identify:-
The proposed road alignments Location
The local terrain and site condition
The required design life of the bridge
Traffic volume
Resources available for the project

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 Cont…
 Local terrain( Topo) and site conditions dictate:
 Height
 Length and Number of spans
 Location of piers
 Design of substructures
 The traffic volume study will determine the
 Bridge width
 Number of Lanes
 Required design life and Resource available depend on
 Choice of Construction Material
 Construction methods

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 Site Selection of Bridges
 Preliminary Survey of Bridge project is used to assess &
study more than one alternative bridge sites at early stage, as
Desk study,
 Possible bridge sites are first located using the Google earth
and then,
 catchment areas, possible provisional road alignments,
aggregate quarries (construction-Mater.), and other uses are
estimated.
 After locating the possible bridge sites on these Google earth

maps, these sites are visited to collect certain preliminary data

required for through examination of alternative bridge sites from
which the final site is selected.
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After preliminary study, the following Criteria should be
considered for ideal Bridge Site Selection:- ɵ
 The reach of the river should be straight
 The River channel in the reach should be well defined
 The crossing site should be as narrow as possible
 The crossing river site should have firm banks which are fairly in-
erodible
 The crossing river site should have strong strata (soil) across
river ,especially at pier and abutment location
 The site should be selected where skewness can be avoid (skew
angle “ɵ” Below 200 & not at curved road alignment)
 The river in the reach should have a Steady flow free of excess/
turbulence.
 crossing site should require less river training works

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97
Skewed Bridge Crossing
 Cont…

Once the engineer has identified a likely site for the bridge,
site investigation perform on:-
 Hydraulic investigation(River Survey):-
River information
River condition, High water levels
catchment area and run off
 Topography Survey
 Soil Investigation
 field sketching and photos
A . River information
-River name
-Flow direction
-Name of nearest town
-Bench marks
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 Cont…
B. River condition
There are different types of rivers.
1.Alluvial rivers: are winding(zigzag) and they erode their banks and
scour their beds.
2.Incised rivers: are their banks generally stable, narrower and
deeper than alluvial rivers

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 Cont…
3.Meandering (zigzag) rivers: are rivers whose water flow
directions are zigzag, generally erodible bank, wide and shallow
river.
4.Straight Rivers: are rivers whose water flow directions are straight
, generally stable, narrower and deeper than Meandering river

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 Cont…
 C. High water marks -Can be determined
Based on the reading from gauges
By contacting local people
Debris remain around the banks.
 D. Catchment Area and run off Data
Design flow volumes to be considered for the bridge design are
function of the catchment characteristics :-
catchment size, grade and covers
presence of any artificial or natural storage dam, lakes
maximum recorded intensity and frequency of rainfall
Determination of maximum discharge
Using empirical formula ⇒ Q=C*An
Using rational formula ⇒ Q=C*1*A
Area-velocity method ⇒ Q=V*A
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 Distance to be covered by contour Survey
Catchment area (Km2) Upstream (m) Downstream(m)
Up to 2.5 150 150
2.5-10 200-400 150
> 10 400-500 250

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 Example on Site Selection

103
 Span Determination
Span determination is usually dictated by the hydraulic
requirement. However, there are conditions where affecting span
of bridges

104
 Cont…
 However, there are conditions where affecting span
of bridges:-
1. Economy: For a given span the most economical
span is the length at which superstructure cost
equals to substructure cost.
2. Hydraulic requirement: bridges are designed to
Safely accommodate design discharge at design
flood. When a river has a wide flood plain, the
economical solution may be using short span
bridge with proper scour and erosion protection for
the embankment, abutments and piers.

105
 Cont…
3.Soil condition of the bridge site- At abutment
and pier
4. Location of Piers:
 Piers should be located in such a way that they

can provide the required lineal waterway and

navigational clearance.
 The alignment of piers and abutments should, if

possible, be set parallel to the direction of flow

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during maximum flood.
 Cont…
5. Free board:
 The waterway below the superstructure must be
designed to pass the design flood and the floating
debris carried on it.
Discharge (m3/s) Vertical clearance of
free board(m)
0 to 3 0.3
3 to 30 0.6
30 to 300 0.9
>300 1.2

These clearance measurements should be increased for

backwater effects when the flow is restricted by short span
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(by abutment or pier) bridge.
 DATA REQUIRED
Topographic Maps:
To determine channel and floodplain width,
To identify possible crossing sites, to
To obtain the channel gradient, and
To indicate floodplain &forested areas in the u/s
Geological Maps, Soil Maps And Geological Memoirs:-
Provide some details about the local geology and the likelihood
of the channel migrating or of scour being a problem.
 Hydrological Data:- gauging station records, annual maxima,

stage-discharge relationship & flow- duration curve.

These are needed to help identify the design flood and the
maximum likely water level, and to plan construction work
108
 Cont…

Meteorological Data:-Rainfall depths, intensities, snowfall and

snow-melt, temperature range and wind speed.

These data may help in assessing the possibility of flash flood

River Channel Data:- roughness of the channel and floodplains

(say for use in the Manning equation) are never easy to determine
at the best of times and may have to be inferred initially from
preliminary visits to the site.

It may be difficult to determine the width and depth of the river

channel from maps
109
 Hydraulics of culverts
 A complete theoretical analysis of culvert hydraulics based on

fundamental equations can be difficult. Flow conditions vary over

time for any given culvert.
 The barrel of the culvert may flow full or partly full depending upon

upstream and downstream conditions, barrel characteristics, and inlet

geometry.
 Full flow in a culvert barrel is rare. Generally, at least part of the

barrel flows partly full. A water surface profile calculation is the

only way to accurately determine how much of the barrel flows full.
110
The discharge of a culvert is determined by the application of the continuity and
energy equation between the approached section and the downstream section
which is with in the culvert barrel.

111
 Cont…

 Headwater፡ The depth of the upstream water surface measured

from the invert at the culvert entrance is generally referred to as
headwater depth.
 Tail water ፡is defined as the depth of water downstream of the
culvert measured from the outlet invert. It is an important factor in
112 determining culvert capacity under outlet control conditions.
 Types of Culvert Flow
 When the river water flows through a culvert barrel, different

types of flow condition will be developed depending up on the

height of available head water upstream of the culvert, inlet
geometry, barrel characteristics and so on.
 There are about seven types of flow conditions in culvert

hydraulics and the characteristics of each type of flow are

discussed below.

113
 Cont…
A. Flow Type I:
 Inlet control
 Un-submerged inlet & free flow out let
 Critical depth occurs at or near the inlet:
 Partially full flow
 The slope of the culvert barrel is greater than the critical slope(steep
slope)
 The downstream water surface elevation is lower than the elevation of
the water surface where critical flow occurs at the inlet
 The upstream water depth is less than approximately 1.2 times the
barrel height (or diameter) y1/D < 1.2
 Downstream water depth(Y4) is less than barrel height (or diameter).i.e
y4/D < 1
 Supercritical flow
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115
 B. Type II Flow
 Outlet control
 Un-submerged inlet with low tail water
 Critical depth occurs at or near the outlet:
 Partially full flow
 The slope of the culvert barrel is greater than critical slope
 The downstream water surface elevation is lower than the elevation
of the water surface where critical flow occurs at the outlet
 The upstream water depth is less than approximately 1.2 times the
barrel height (or diameter) y1/D < 1.2
 Downstream water depth(Y4) is less than barrel height (or
diameter).i. y4/yc < 1
 Subcritical flow at barrel
 Mild slope (So ‹ Scritical)
116
 Un-submerged inlet

117
 C. Type III Flow
 Outlet control
 Un-submerged inlet with tail water backing up in to outlet
 Subcritical barrel flow, a gradually-varied flow profile:
 The downstream water surface elevation is less than the height (or
diameter) of the barrel, but is more than the critical depth at the
outlet
 The upstream water depth is less than approximately 1.2 times the
barrel height (or diameter)
 Un submerged inlet with tail water backing up into outlet
 Mild slope (So< Scritical)
 Y4/Yc >1.0
 Partially full flow

118
119
 D. Type IV Flow
 Outlet control
 Both the upstream and downstream ends of the culvert are
submerged, and the barrel is completely full of water.
 Y1/D >1.2
 Y4/D >1 , Tail water depth is assumed to be critical depth
 Any slope type
 The flow rate can be estimated directly from the energy equation .

120
  
E. Type V Flow
submerged inlet with low tail water
Inlet control and Partially full flow
The flow is supercritical flow at inlet
any slope and flowing freely on the downstream side.
Short length of culvert
Y1/D >1.2 and Y4/Yc ≤ 1
Orifice flow control at inlet
Submerged inlet with low tail water

121
 F. Type VI Flow
 Submerged inlet with low tail water
 Culvert flows full /pipe flow
 Outlet not submerged, any slope
 Long length of culvert
 Outlet control
 Y1/D >1.2

 Y4/D ≤ 1

122
 G. Type VII Flow
 Submerged inlet with low tail water
 Partially full flow
 Outlet not submerged
 Steep slope
 Y1/D >1.2

 Y4/D ≤ 1
 Outlet control

123
 Types of Flow Control
 Based on a variety of laboratory tests and field experience, two
basic types of flow control have been defined for culverts:
1. Inlet control,
2. Outlet control
A. Inlet control፡ occurs when the culvert barrel is capable of
conveying more flow than the inlet will accept.
 The hydraulic control section of a culvert operating under inlet
control is located just inside the entrance.
 Critical depth occurs at or near this location and the flow regime
immediately downstream is supercritical.
 Hydraulic characteristics downstream of the inlet do not affect
culvert capacity.
 Upstream water surface elevation and inlet geometry are the
124 primary factors influencing culvert capacity.
125
 Cont…
B. Outlet control: occurs when the culvert barrel is not capable of
conveying as much flow as the inlet opening will accept.
 The control section for outlet control flow in a culvert is located at

the barrel exit or further downstream.

 Either subcritical or pressure flow exists in the culvert barrel under

these conditions.
 All of the geometric and hydraulic characteristics of the culvert play

a role in determining its capacity.

 These characteristics include all of the factors governing inlet

control, the water surface elevation at the outlet, and the barrel
126
characteristics.
 Cont…

Typical outlet control flow condition

127
 In inlet control, only the inlet area, the inlet configuration, and the
shape influence the culvert performance for a given headwater
elevation.
 In outlet control, all of the factors listed in Table 1.1 affect culvert
performance.

128
 The following are concepts that are important in
culvert Design
 Critical Flow :-A state of flow where the specific energy is a

minimum for a given discharge. Also, it is the state of flow where

the velocity head is equal to one-half the hydraulic depth or where
the ratio of inertial forces to gravity forces is equal to unity (Froude
number equal to 1).
 Critical depth- is the depth at the critical flow. For a given discharge

and cross section geometry, there is only one critical depth.

 Critical Slope :-A slope that sustains a given discharge at a uniform

and critical depth

129
 Cont…
 Crown (soffit) - The inside top of the culvert.

 Flow Type- Six or seven culvert flow types are presented that assist

in determining the flow conditions at a particular site.

 Free Outlet- has tail water equal to or lower than critical depth. For

culverts with free outlets, a lowering of the tail water has no effect
on the discharge or the backwater profile upstream of the tail water.
 Energy Grade Line:- represents the total energy at any point along

the culvert barrel. The total energy at any section is the sum of flow
depth, velocity head (V^2/2g), and all energy losses
130
 Cont…
 Improved Inlet- has an entrance geometry that decreases the flow

constriction at the inlet and thus increases the capacity of culverts. These
inlets are referred to as either side- or slope-tapered (walls or bottom
tapered).
 Invert- is the flow line of the culvert (inside bottom).

 Normal flow- occurs in a channel reach when the discharge, velocity, and

depth of flow do not change throughout the reach. The water surface
profile and channel bottom slope will be parallel. This type of flow will
exist in a culvert operating on a steep slope if the culvert is sufficiently
long enough.
 Normal Depth :- is the depth of water at a steady, uniform constant
131
velocity and flow at a given channel reach.
 Cont…
 Slope - Steep water surface slope occurs where the critical depth is

greater than the normal depth(supercritical flow). Mild slope occurs

where critical depth is less than normal depth(subcritical flow).
 Submerged- A submerged outlet occurs where the tail water elevation

is higher than the crown of the culvert. A submerged inlet occurs

where the headwater is greater than 1.2D.
 Freeboard-Safety margin over design water level before overflow

occurs (in a unit of length).

 Headwater :- The water body at the inlet of a culvert.

 Tail water:-The water body at the outlet of a culvert

132
 Design criteria of culvert hydraulics
 Site criteria:-
 Structure Type Selection

 Length and Slope:- The culvert length and slope should be chosen to

approximate existing topography, and to the degree practicable:

 The culvert invert shall normally be aligned with the channel

bottom and the skew angle of the stream

 The culvert entrance shall match the geometry of the roadway.

133
 Cont…
 Debris Control:- shall be considered

• For culverts located in mountainous or steep regions

• For culverts that are under high fills, and

• Where clean out access is limited

 Design limitations:-

Allowable Headwater:- will be limited by:

• will not damage up stream property,

• Not higher than 300 mm below the edge of the shoulder,

• Equal to an HW/D not greater than 1.5 ( 2 for D< 1m),

• Equal to the elevation where flow can be diverted around the culvert
134
 Cont…
 Maximum Velocity:- the maximum velocity at the culvert exit

shall be consistent with the velocity in the natural channel or shall

be mitigated with:

• channel stabilization and

• Energy dissipation
 Minimum Velocity:-the minimum velocity in the culvert barrel

should result in a tractive force greater than critical tractive force

of the transported streambed material at low flow rates.
• use 0.8 meters per second when streambed material size is not

135 known.
 Cont…
Material Selection:-concrete is the preferred material for construction of

culverts; however, other materials may be more suitable for a particular

location, hydraulic roughness, bedding condition.
the selection process shall be based on :-

 Durability (service life),

 Cost

 Availability

 Construction and maintenance ease

 Structural strength,

 Traffic delays

 Abrasion and corrosion resistance, and

136 Water tightness requirements

 Cont…
 Outlet Protection ( Energy Dissipaters) In general scour holes

at culvert outlets provide efficient energy dissipaters.

137
 Hydraulic design of culverts
 The objective of hydraulic design of culvert is to determine the

most economic dimension that can provide the passage of a design

discharge without exceeding the allowable head water elevation.
 The major component of a culvert usually includes the inlet, the

pipe barrel, the outlet and an outlet energy dissipater if necessary.

 Inlet structures protect embankments from erosion and improve the

hydraulic conditions of culverts.

 Outlet structures are designed to protect the culvert outlet from

scouring.
138
 Cont…
Formulas used in culvert hydraulic design
 Manning’s Equation:
Q = (1/n)* A * (R)2/3 * (S)1/2
Q = Discharge (m3)
n = Hydraulic roughness coefficient (barrel
roughness)
A = Area of the pipe (m2)
R = Hydraulic radius (m)
S = Slope of the culvert

139
 Cont…
 Weir Equation ( unsubmerged Inlet):-
Q = Cw *(Lw) H 3 / 2
Where:

Q = discharge (m3/s)

Cw = dimensionless weir coefficient (2.2 to 3.1 are typical

values for a broad-crested weir)

Lw = the length of the weir perpendicular to the flow (m)

H = is the energy head (depth + velocity head) of the

approaching flow above the crest of the spillway.
140
 Cont…
 Orifice Equation (Submerged Inlet):

Q = Co *Ao* (2g ho) 1/ 2

Where:

Q = discharge (m3/s)

Co = dimensionless orifice coefficient (0.62 is a typical value for

a sharp-edged orifice)

Ao = the area of the orifice perpendicular to the flow (m2)

g = gravitational constant of 9.81 m/sec 2

ho = the orifice energy head (depth + velocity head) of the

141
approaching flow from inlet centroid (m)
 Cont…
 Energy Grade line equation:-
 Equating the total energy at sections 1 and 2, upstream and downstream
of the culvert barrel in Figure below, the following relationship results:

Hwo +SL + ( Vu2/2g) = TW + (Vd2/2g) + HL

Where: HWo = headwater depth above the inlet invert, m

Vu = approach velocity, m/s

TW = tailwater depth above the outlet invert, m

Vd = downstream velocity, m/s

HL = sum of all losses

L = length of culvert
142
S = slope of culvert.
143
 Cont…
Head Loss through Submerged Tube :( Barrel Losses)

hL = he + hf + ho

Where: hL = the total head loss (m)

he = entrance loss (m)

hf = friction loss through the pipe (m)

ho = exit loss (m)

he = ke (V 2 / 2g)

Where: ke = Entrance loss coefficient

V = the flow velocity just inside the barrel inlet (m/ s)

144 g = gravitational constant of 9.81m / sec 2
 Cont…
hf = (V2 n 2 ) (L) / ( R4 / 3 )
Where: hf = friction loss through the culvert
V = average barrel velocity, m/s
L = length of pipe
A = area of the pipe
R = hydraulic radius ( R = A / P - area divided by the
wetted perimeter)
n = Hydraulic roughness coefficient (barrel roughness)
ho = ko [(V2/2g) - (Vd2/2g)] , ko = 1
Where: Vd = channel velocity downstream of the culvert, m/s
(usually neglected,).
ho = hv = V2/2g
145
 Cont…

Total Loss:
hL = [ 1 + ke + (19.62 n 2 L) / R 4/3 ] V2 / 2g
Critical Depth:
Q2 / g = Ac3 / Tc…………for circular shape
Where: Q = discharge
g = the gravitational constant
Ac = cross sectional area at critical flow
Tc = top width of water surface at critical flow
For rectangular sections, critical depth can be directly computed as:
Yc = (q2 / g)1/ 3
Where: q = discharge per unit width (Q/B)
g = the gravitational constant
146
 Cont…
From the above formulas for:
A. Submerged inlet and outlet (Flow Type 4)
→ use Energy equation
B. Submerged inlet with full flow but free discharge at the outlet .
(Flow Type 6 & 7
→ use Energy equation
In order to avoid backwater calculations, approximate methods have
been developed to analyze partly full flow conditions. use depth at
outlet (Y3) = (Yc +D)/2, or
the tail water depth if higher. (for type 7
C. Submerged inlet with partially full pipe (Flow Type 5
→ use Orifice equation
D) Unsubmerged inlet ( Type 1,2,&3 )
For Type 1 →use Weir & Energy equation
147
 Cont…

For Type 2 →tail water depth (Y4) is lower than critical depth
then use depth at outlet (Y3) as critical depth and use Energy
equation and critical flow condition to design/to calculate water
surface elevation at the upstream (Hw).
 The direct step back water method is used to determine the

water surface profile through the conduit.

For Type 3 →tail water depth (Y4) is higher than critical depth
then use Y4 as critical depth.
 Use critical flow condition and energy equation the water

148
surface profile through the conduit.
 Cont…
 Outlet Velocity:-Culvert outlet velocities should be calculated to determine

the need for erosion protection or an energy dissipater at the culvert exit.

If inlet control is the controlling head water:-

a) calculate flow depth at culvert exit

→use normal depth (Yn). ( i.e. An approximation used to avoid

backwater calculations, may be calculated using a trial and error solution
of the Manning equation.)

→use water surface profile .( beginning at Yc at the entrance and

proceed downstream to the exit.

b) Calculate flow area (A)

149 c) Calculate exit velocity ( Vo) = Q/A

 Fig. Outlet velocity - inlet control
150
 Cont…

If outlet control is the controlling head water:-

 In outlet control, the cross sectional area of the flow is defined by
the geometry of the outlet and either critical depth, tail water
depth, or the height of the conduit.

a) calculate flow depth at culvert exit.

 Critical depth is used when the tail water is less than critical
depth ( Yc if Yc > Tw).
 Tail water depth is used when tail water is greater than critical
depth but below the top of the barrel ( Tw if Yc < Tw < D).
 Total barrel area is used when the tail water exceeds the top of the
barrel ( D if D< Tw ).

b) Calculate flow area (A)

c) Calculate exit velocity ( Vo) = Q/A

151
 Example
1.The depth of water above inlet centroid of a pipe culvert is1.8m. The
downstream side of the culvert is unsubmerged and the discharge
coefficient is Co = 0.6. The pipe has a diameter of 2m. What is the
flow through the pipe?

2. A box culvert with an unsubmerged inlet functions as a weir. The

culvert has a bottom width of 2m. The tail water does not back through
culvert, The “ponded” water elevation immediately upstream of the
inlet is1.2m above the inlet flow line. Assume the approach is short
and the velocity in the “pond” is zero. Use Weir Coefficient value of
2.2. What is the maximum estimated discharge that will pass through
the inlet?
152
 3. A concrete pipe is used as a culvert that must carry a flow rate of
5.3m3/s and discharge in to air. At the entrance the maximum
available water head is 3.2m above the bottom as shown in the
figure below. The culvert is 35m long with square edged entrance
and slope of 0.003. Determine the diameter of the pipe.
Use Ke = 0.5, n = 0.013, Cd = 0.62

153
 Design completion methods
The there are several methods including the following

 Capacity charts

 Nomographs

 Computer application

154
 Culvert design using Nomographs
What is nomographs?

Is a graph with three lines graduated so that a straight line

intersecting any two of the lines at their known values intersects the
third at the value of the related

155
156
The two basic conditions of inlet control depend upon whether the
inlet end of the culvert is or is not submerged by the upstream
headwater.
 If the inlet is not submerged by the headwater, the inlet performs
as a weir and
If the inlet is submerged by the headwater, the inlet performs as an
orifice
Unsubmerged Inlet Control Equations: has two forms
Form (1)- is based on the specific head at critical depth, adjusted
with correction factors.
 is preferable from a theoretical standpoint
Form (2)፡ is an exponential equation similar to a weir equation
 is easier to apply and is the only documented form of
157
equation for some of the inlet control equations
 Submerged Inlet Control Equations:

158
Where:-
Hwi : Headwater depth above inlet control section invert, (m)
D : Interior height of culvert barrel, (m)
Hc : Specific head at critical depth (dc + Vc2/2g), (m)
Q : Discharge, (m3/s)
A : Full cross sectional area of culvert barrel, (m2)
S : Culvert barrel slope, (m/m)
K,M, c, Y Constants from Table
Ku : Unit conversion 1.0 (1.811 SI)
Ks : Slope correction, -0.5 (mitered inlets +0.7)

159
160
Inlet control calculation፡
 The inlet control calculations determine the headwater elevation required to
pass the design flow through the selected culvert configuration in inlet
control.
The approach velocity head may be included as part of the headwater, if desired.
 Inlet control nomographs are used in the design process

Inlet control nomographs for typical configurations

• Headwater Depth for concrete pipe culverts with inlet control,
chart –7-1
• Headwater Depth for C.M pipe culverts with inlet control, chart
–7-2
• Headwater Depth for circular pipe culverts with Beveled ring inlet
control , chart –3A
• Headwater Depth for Box culvert with inlet control , chart –7-6
161
162
163
 Chart -2A
Chart -3A

164
165
Step 1. Locate the selected culvert size (point 1) and flow rate (point 2)
on the appropriate scales of the inlet control nomographs. For box
culverts, the flow rate per foot of barrel width is used.

Step 2. Using a straightedge, carefully extend a straight line from the

culvert size (point 1) through the flow rate (point 2) and mark a point
on the first headwater/culvert height (HW/D) scale (point 3). The first
HW/D scale is also a turning line.

Step 3. Each scale represents a different inlet type. If another HW/D

scale is required, extend a horizontal line from the first HW/D scale to
the desired scale and read the result
166
Step 4. Multiply HW/D by the culvert height, D, to obtain the required
headwater depth, HW, from the invert of the control section to the energy
grade line. If the approach velocity is neglected, HW equals the required
headwater depth, HWi. If the approach velocity is included in the
calculations, deduct the approach velocity head from HW to determine Hwi.
Step 5. Calculate the required depression (FALL) of the inlet control section
below the stream bed as follows:

HWi =ELhd-ELsf 

HW=ELhd-Elhi

Fall= HW-HWi
167
Where:

HWi= design headwater depth (m)

Elhd =design headwater elevation (m)
Elsf =elevation of the stream bed at the face (m)
HW=required headwater depth (m)

168
Example1: The inlet of a 1.4m diameter reinforced
concrete pipe (RCP)is submerged by a flow of 5m3/s. The
inlet has a Groove end treatment with headwall. What is
the inlet control headwater depth above the inlet invert
(flow line)? The slope of the culvert is 0.015 m/m.
Example2: Compute the “inlet” control headwater depth
and elevation using the nomographs. The headwater needs
to be determined for a discharge of 2.88m3/s through a 1.2
m by1.2m concrete box culvert. The culvert has an
entrance with wingwall 45o. The barrel has an upstream
invert elevation of 30m at the inlet.

169
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 THANK YOU!!!

171