Renewable Energy Systems

The solar resource

Source: Masters (Chapter 7)
Electrical Engineering
Muhammad Jafar
Introduction
Info about sunlight necessary to design solar power systems
Power availability dependent upon
Location of sun in the sky
Angle of solar beams
Climatic conditions
The solar spectrum
 Source of solar power
Fusion reactions in the sun and resulting heat

About radiation of energy

Proportional to temperature of the body radiating that energy
Blackbody radiation
• Perfect emitter: radiates more energy per unit area than any other real object
• Perfect absorber: absorbs all energy thrown at it
• Wavelength of emitted radiation from a blackbody (Planck’s law)
Emission spectrum of earth modelled
as a blackbody at 288 K
Area under Planck’s curve between 2
wavelengths is the power emitted
between those 2 wavelengths
Total area under the curve gives the
total power emitted
Given by Stefan-Boltzmann law of
radiation
Wavelength at which the curve
reaches its maximum
Given by Wien’s displacement rule
Example

Earth radiation

Wavelength for maximum radiation

Comparison with the sun

Important
Earth’s atmosphere behaves
differently to longer and
shorter wavelengths
A phenomenon responsible
for greenhouse effect
Sun’s interior temp.
estimated to be around 15
MK
Energy released matches a
5800 K blackbody
Area under the curve equals
1.37 kW per sq. m
Insolation outside the
atmosphere
UV 7%
Visible 47% (0.38 – 0.78 m)
IR 46%
Radiation energy absorbed
by various layers of our
atmosphere
Terrestrial spectrum is thus
irregular shaped
Absorption depends upon
the distance the beams have
to travel through the
atmosphere
 The actual distance the rays have to cover
The minimum possible distance
Definition: air mass ratio

 the altitude angle of the sun

AM1 when sun is directly overhead

 AM0 refers to no atmosphere (extraterrestrial
spectrum)
Usually AM1.5 for average solar spectrum at the
surface of earth
AM1.5 energy distribution
2% in the UV spectrum
54% in the visible spectrum
44% in the infrared spectrum
Impact of angle on energy spectrum
Less energy reaches the surface
More energy in the infrared region
The earth’s orbit
 Elliptical but nearly circular
Nearest point to the sun
Perihelion
January 2
147 million km
Furthest point from the sun
Aphelion
July 3
152 million km
Variation in distance from sun calculated using

 is the day number in the year

Rotation about earth’s own axis
 Spins 360.99 in every 24 hours
 Not 360

Plane of rotation around sun

 Ecliptic

Axis of own rotation tilted at 23.45 to the ecliptic

Equinox
 March 21 and September 21 (roughly)
 Line through the center of sun and the center of earth passes through the equator
 Equal day time of 12 hours and night time of 12 hours (or more?)

Solstice
 21 December and 21 June (roughly)
 Maximum difference between day and night durations
Weird stuff
The orbital shape changes from highly elliptical to nearly circular with a period of 100000
years (eccentricity)
 The angle of earth axis to the ecliptic oscillates between 21.5 and 24.5 with a period of
41000 years (obliquity)
Precession with a period of 23000 years
All these impact climate over geological timescales
Ice ages
Interglacial periods
Milankovitch oscillations
Altitude angle of the sun at solar noon
Sun at maximum height in the sky at solar noon
South in northern hemisphere
North in southern hemisphere
Info helpful for
designing windows for winter heating and summer blocking of sun
solar energy collector tilts
 Earth perspective
Note the angle
Solar declination
Varies sinusoidaly
Earth perspective
Arctic and antarctic
summer solstice
• Arctic daylight 24 hours
• Antarctic night 24 hours
Winter solstice
• Arctic night 24 hours
• Antarctic daylight 24 hours
Deciding the tilt of a solar panel
Panel pointing south tilted at an
angle equal to the latitude value of
the location
Becomes parallel to the axis of
rotation of earth
The sun’s rays will be perpendicular
to the panel at local noon
At other times of the year, the sun is
a little higher or lower in the sky
On average a good tilt angle for most
of the year
Solar noon
Sun in the south always for northern
hemisphere above the tropic of Cancer
Sun in the north always for southern
hemisphere below the tropic of Capricorn
Either north, south, or directly overhead in
the tropics depending upon time of year

Collector angle
Towards equator is good enough all year
Angle can be increased to enhance winter
collection
Angle can be reduced to enhance summer
collection
Angle of sun at noon for any latitude
Altitude angle
Example
Solar position at any time of day
 Two parameters
Altitude angle
Azimuth angle , subscript
depicting that it is the azimuth
angle of the sun
Azimuth positive in the morning
and negative in the afternoon by
convention
South is the reference in the
northern hemisphere
North is the reference in the
southern hemisphere
Azimuth and altitude vary
according to time of day
Variations also during the year
Azimuth
  and altitude vary according
to time of day
Variations also during the year
Hour counting before and after solar
noon
Equations for computing angles

Time measurement according to ,

called hour angle
Angle in degrees through which the
earth must rotate for the sun to be
in the south
Angle in degrees through which the earth
must rotate for the sun to be in the south
Sun is above a certain longitude
(meridian) at any time
Hour angle is the local meridian minus the
sun’s meridian
Positive before noon
Negative after noon
Earth rotates almost 360 in a 24
hours
Or 15 per hour
Example hour angle at 1100
hours where noon is at 1200 is
15
Issue with equation

Spring and summer azimuth

may be more than 90 from
south in early morning and late
afternoon
Also arcsin is ambiguous

Need to determine whether

angle is more than 90 or less
Example

Altitude angle
Azimuth angle

Two possibilities for azimuth angle

For decision
Data can be charted
Example for L = 40
Sun path diagrams for shading analysis
Very important in determining shading
patterns at any site for PV
Need to sketch azimuth and altitudes for
obstacles in the path of sun rays
Possible with software but is very easy to
do with
Compass (for azimuth angles)
Protractor and Plumb bob (for altitude angle)
Measurement of altitude angle
Measurement of azimuth angle done with compass
But compass points to magnetic north and not true north (magnetic deviation or
declination)
Need correction for that
Superposition of obstacles on a sun path diagram
When these diagrams are combined with insolation information for the year, we
get energy lost due to these obstacles
Example
Solar time and civil (clock) time
Solar time (ST) different from civil time (CT)
ST measured from 1200 at solar noon (sun is exactly at the observer’s longitude)
However, clocks are aligned to CT
Adjustments need to be made
Longitude adjustment
Fudge factor for uneven way of earth’s rotation around the sun
Longitude adjustment
15 rotation per hour
4 minutes per degree
Earth divided into 24 time zones
Each time zone is 15 wide
All clocks within the time zone
set to the same time
Local time meridian is located in
the middle of the time zone
ideally
Origin of this time zone system
is Greenwitch, England
Longitude adjustment
Time correction between local time
and solar time is based on the time
it takes for the sun to travel
between the local meridian and
observer’s longitude
e.g. if it is solar noon at local
meridian, it will be 4 minutes later
for every degree the observer is
west of the meridian
Fudge correction
Solar noon varies throughout the year due to earth’s elliptic orbit
Solar day length changes every day
Equation describing this variation (equation of time)

where
Relationship between CT and ST after applying both corrections

Add 1 hour to CT during daylight saving time

Example
 

July 1 means
Use
Example

Adjust for daylight saving (July)

Sunrise and sunset
Rough times for sunrise and sunset can be obtained from
 Accurate calculations can be done from

 at sunrise and sunset

So

Geometric sunrise

Measured to the center of the sun

Actual sunrise and sunset affected by
The leading edge of the sun rising and the trailing edge sinking below the horizon
The refraction of light (2.4 min)
Seasons
• Sun sinks more vertically and less horizontally during equinoxes
• More sideways movement during solstices
Adjustment factor for accurate sunrise and sunset

To be subtracted for sunrise and added for sunset

Plot of Q factor
Between 4 and 6 minutes for
mid-latitudes
Example

Solar declination

Hour angle at sunrise

Solar time for geometric sunrise

Correction factor for refraction and leading-edge definition of sunrise

So the leading edge of the sun will appear 5.5 minutes before geometric sunrise

Local clock ahead of solar time by 12.1 min (From example 7.5)

Similar treatment for sunset

The reverse also works with these equations
Possible to find longitude and latitude from sunrise and sunset times.
Clear sky direct-beam radiation
Solar flux can come from three directions
Direct-beam radiation: coming straight through the atmosphere
Diffuse radiation: coming from other directions after scattering by air molecules and other
stuff
Reflected radiation: bouncing off of other objects and hitting the collector
Clear sky direct-beam radiation
Preferred measurement in Watts per square meter for solar electric
Other units: BTU, kilocalories, langleys
Collectors focus on direct-beam radiation only
Because the other two sources are not consistent in direction
No focusing in photovoltaic (PV) systems
All components of radiation can contribute to energy collection
 Calculation of direct-beam radiation
Estimate extraterrestrial (ET) solar insolation
Depends upon varying sun-earth distance
Depends upon sun activity
• Varies predictably (11 year cycle)
• Sunspots appear to reduce insolation
• Faculae are brighter parts of the sun and increase
insolation
• Combined activity of sunspots and faculae result in
higher insolation
• Insolation during periods with sunspots is 1.5%
higher than those without sunspots
Equation describing ET solar insolation.
 Calculation of direct-beam radiation
Equation describing ET solar insolation

• is the solar constant (average annual ET solar

insolation) Commonly agreed value of 1.377 kW / m2
• is the day number
The beam is absorbed and scattered upon entry
into the atmosphere
• Gas molecules
• Suspended particles
• Water vapour
Yearly average dispersion / absorption, more or
less, is more than half of what it is outside the
atmosphere
 Calculation of direct-beam radiation
On a clear day when the sun is high in the sky,
70% reaches the surface of the earth

Attenuation of incoming radiation is a function

of
• distance the beam travels in the atmosphere (easy to
calculate)
• Dust, air pollution, atmospheric water vapor, clouds,
turbidity (not easy to calculate)
• Model of attenuation

• is the beam portion of the radiation reaching the

earth’s surface
• is the apparent ET flux
• is optical depth
 Calculation of direct-beam radiation
Commonly used values of and , based on measurements in the US (?)

Equation describing these interactions

Example

May 21 is day number 141

Solar declination on May 21 is 20.1
Altitude angle of the sun at solar noon

Air mass ratio

Beam radiation on clear-sky day

Total clear-sky insolation on a collecting surface
Easy to calculate direct-beam radiation
Diffuse and reflective insolation is not easy to calculate
Since these are very small compared to direct-beam, we can use rough models
without loss of accuracy
Direct-beam radiation
 Easy to translate into what is collected by a collector
Have to account for angle of incidence

Special case of a horizontal collector

 is a function of
the altitude angle
azimuth angle
Orientation of collector
 Orientation of collector
Tilt of collector
Azimuth angle of collector

Incidence angle given by

Example

Using equation

Using equation
Diffuse radiation
Chaotic phenomenon
Very difficult to accurately calculate
Simplest model is to assume diffused
radiation coming equally from all sides
with equal intensity
Exceptions
Sky is brighter in the vicinity of the sun on
a hazy or cloudy day
Even on clear days, this is the case
Both are ignored often
 Mathematical model
Diffuse insolation on a horizontal surface, proportional to direct-beam radiation

 sky diffuse factor

About 15% of total energy hitting a collector is from diffuse insolation

 Diffuse radiation absorbed by a collector?
Main assumption: comes from every direction uniformly
Collector will be exposed to whatever fraction of the sky it is exposed to
 means full is accessible
 means 50% of is accessible
Example

Diffuse sky factor

Diffuse insolation

Total insolation = 697+88=785 W/m2

Reflected radiation
Radiation reflected off of objects in front of the collector
Can be significant: snow, water on a bright day
Can be very small
Again a chaotic phenomenon
Too many assumptions need to be made
Even then quite coarse estimates are arrived at
 Ground reflectance for
Fresh snow 0.8
Bituminous-and-gravel roof 0.1
Ordinary ground and grass 0.2
Modeling
Assumption of large horizontal area
With reflectance which is diffuse
i.e. reflects in all directions with
equal intensity
Not a very suitable assumption
especially if the surface is smooth
and bright
Reflected amount: product of total
horizontal radiation (beam ) times
 Modeling
Of this collected by collector depends
upon the tilt

 means no reflected radiation

 means 50% of reflected radiation is
accessible
Substitute values of and values
Example

Clear-sky reflected insolation on the collector

Total insolation
Distribution in total: 84.7% direct, 10.7% diffuse, 4.6% reflected
Combining all components

Describes total insolation of which reflected is often ignored

Tracking systems
No tracking is cost effective and simple to maintain

However, tracking is also becoming cheaper in certain applications

Tracker types
Two-axis trackers: track the altitude and azimuth of the sun
Single-axis trackers: track just one of the two possible options
 Two-axis tracking

Equations
Single-axis tracking
Tracking in east-west
direction
Manually adjusted tilt
Tilt set to local latitude is
optimal (polar mount)
 Single-axis tracking
Polar mount
If the east-west tracker
rotates at 15 per hour,
the center line will
always face the sun
Incidence angle will be
equal to solar
declination
Direct beam insolation is
then
 Single-axis tracking
Polar mount
For diffuse and reflected insolation, tilt angle is required
Original tilt is
Effective tilt (angle between horizontal and the normal to
the collector plane)

Resulting equations
Example
Monthly clear-sky insolation
Just use the equations in previous sections and multiply them with time
Due consideration for angle changes
Variation of insolation with collector tilt angle (quite insignificant)
Annual values don’t tell the whole story
Non optimal tilt and orientation will generate less in one season and more in the other
Grid-connected PV systems don’t have a problem with this
Winter deficit can be brought in from the grid
Summer excess can be sold to the grid

Standalone systems need backup

Batteries or diesel generator
Will be stressed (back up size will increase) if collection is not optimal
Monthly insolation plot
Annual insolation for all variants
have the same annual output
The better are the ones with less
monthly variation
Fixed panels vs trackers
Both tracking options superior
Two-axis tracker is not
significantly superior to single-
axis tracking
Solar radiation measurement
Developed countries have a lot of measurement stations
In addition, modelling and simulation is also used for many
locations
Instrument
Pyranometer: measures radiation coming from all directions (direct
and diffuse)
Pyrheliometer: measures only direct beam through a narrow tube
Instruments can be used in a combination to discriminate
between direct and diffuse components of radiation

A blocking ring on a pyranometer can be used to measure only

the diffuse component
Spectrum measurement is also important these days
UV radiation exposure is a skin cancer risk
The same instruments with filters can provide accurate spectral measurements

Detectors
Thermopiles are stacked thermocouples
Alternating black and white surfaces; black absorb and become hotter than the white that
reflect back almost all the energy. A voltage is generated because of temperature
difference. The brighter the source, the higher the voltage
Alternatively: sensor is all black and the temperature difference with casing is measured
Alternative detector
Photodiode generates a current proportional to insolation and raises the voltage across a
resistance in the current loop
Less accurate since they only respond to certain wavelengths, not the case with
thermopiles
Can be calibrated to produce accurate measurements under clear skies
Not so accurate if the spectrum is altered (measurement through glass or clouds)
Not accurate in measuring artificial light either
Average monthly insolation
 Decisions about solar installations cannot be made on instantaneous clear-sky
insolation levels
We have to take long-term averages

Starting point is average insolation data on horizontal surfaces

This data has to be converted to radiation on tilted collectors.

needs bifurcation of available horizontal data into direct and diffuse radiation
Let
Measured horizontal insolation
Diffuse insolation
Direct beam insolation
 Easier to decompose diffuse into diffuse and reflected part on a tilted collector
Not very easy to convert horizontal direct beam into beam on a collector surface

Conversion of total horizontal insolation to beam and diffuse

Defining a clearness index
Ratio of and the extra-terrestrial insolation on a horizontal surface

Higher values of clearness index means most part of insolation is direct beam and vice
versa
Average daily extra-terrestrial insolation throughout the day (energy units)
Equations used:

Sin of the solar angle from sunrise to sunset

Resulting equation

Usually, clearness index is based on a monthly average

 Daily calculated and averaged over the month
Correlation between diffuse and direct beam at the surface is a topic of debate
One theory

Diffuse collected by a collector surface can be calculated using

Resulting equations
 Average direct beam radiation can be calculated by subtracting diffuse and
reflected averages from the total average

Next step is to convert this horizontal insolation to that collected by a tilted

collector
Starting equations to combine

We get

 the beam tilt factor

 The equation describes instantaneous value

We need average over a month

We calculate average values of

 during daytime hours
 during daytime hours

where
 

Where
 Sunrise angle in radian

 sunrise hour angle for the collector (when sunlight hits the collector for the first
time in the morning)
The ultimate equation for average insolation
Example
Average monthly insolation - Comments
Computations quite tedious
Thankfully already done
Easier to program this in a spreadsheet
Often done by national renewable energy boards / regulators
Example data provided by NREL in USA