METHODS OF RESEARCH

(2nd Semester, 2020-2021)

Pedrito Jose V. Bermudo, EdD PhD

Professor
 CC OUTLINE FOR PROPOSAL/ACTUAL RESEARCH
REPORT

1. TITLE PAGE
2. RECOMMENDATION FOR ORAL
EXAMINATION
3. APPROVAL SHEET
4. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
5. DEDICATION
6. ABSTRACT
7. TABLE OF CONTENTS
8. LIST OF TABLES (numbered Hindu-Arabic)
9. LIST OF FIGURES (numbered Hindu-Arabic)
 Chapter 1
THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING

Background of the Study

Statement of the Problem
Research Hypothesis
Scope and Delimitation
Significance of the Study
Definition of Terms
 Chapter 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

(Introductory Paragraph)

Related Literature
(contains both foreign and local literature)
Related Studies
(contains both foreign and local studies)
Synthesis of Related Literature and Studies
Gap/s to be Bridged by the Present Study
Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
 Chapter 3
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

(Introductory Paragraph)
Research Design
Sources of Data
Sampling Technique
Instrumentation and Validation
Data Gathering Procedure
Statistical Treatment of Data
 CHAPTER 4
PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, AND
INTERPRETATION OF DATA

(Introductory Paragraph)

Level 1 – Trends and Patterns

Level II – Interpretation – meaning of results
Level III – Inferences and Integration of
Findings
Level IV - Implications of the results to theory
and practice in the discipline and
other disciplines
 CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS

(Introductory Paragraph)

Summary of Findings

Conclusions

Recommendations
REFERENCES
Books
Journals
Published Theses/Dissertations, etc.

APPENDICES
Letters of Request
Questionnaire
Editor’s Certificate
Statistician’s Certificate
Attribution Table

CURRICULUM VITAE
Research Defined

Research is a process. As a process, it is

systematic, organized, objective, critical,
exhaustive, and comprehensive. It is done
for the purpose of solving a problem or
adding to the body of knowledge.
Purposes of Research
1. To discover new facts about known
phenomena.
2. To find answers to problems which are
only partially solved by existing methods
and information.
3. To discover previously unrecognized
substances and elements.
4. To provide basis for decisions making in
business, industry, education, government,
and other undertakings.
5. To satisfy the researcher’s curiosity.
6. To find answers to queries by means of a
scientific method.
7. To acquire a deeper and better understanding
about one phenomenon. Ex. why women are
generally smaller than men.
8. To verify or expand existing knowledge.
9. To improve the educational practices for
raising quality of school products.
10. To promote health and prolong life which
are evident in nutritional, pharmaceutical,
and medical researches.
11. To make work, communication, and
travel faster, easier and more
comfortable.
Ethical Principles & Guidelines for Researchers
1. Informed Consent
2. Beneficence (to do good) and Nonmaleficence (to do no
harm)
a. Freedom from any Physical & Psychological Harm
b. Freedom from Exploitation
3. Respect for Human Dignity
a. The right to self-determination
b. The right to full disclosure
c. Anonymity and confidentiality
4. Justice and Fairness
Characteristics of Good Research. Authors of
various research books identified several characteristics
of good research (See et.al., Sevilla, et.al.)
Systematic. It is systematic as there are
interrelated steps or procedures a researcher
has to observe in solving a problem. In other
words, it follows an orderly and sequential
procedure that leads to the discovery of truth,
solution of a problem or whatever is aimed to be
discovered.
Objective. It is not based on guesswork. This is because
empirical data have to be gathered by the researcher
before making any conclusion or proposing any solution
to an identified difficulty or problem. In other words, all
findings and conclusions are logically based on empirical
data and no effort is made to alter the result of the
research.
Empirical. All the procedures employed and the data
gathered are perceived in the same manner by all
observers. Generalizations are drawn by the researcher
upon hard evidence gathered from information collected
from the real life experiences and observations.
Comprehensive. If a researcher is serious about
understanding a phenomenon, he has to
examine and analyze all its aspects or angles
before making a generalization or conclusion.
Critical. This means that procedures employed by
the researcher must be able to withstand critical
scrutiny by other researchers. Data should be
analyzed critically so that there is no error in the
interpretation.
Rigorous. Procedures to be followed in solving a
problem should be relevant, appropriate,
justified, and strictly observed.
Valid. Whenever a researcher formulates
conclusions, these are based on actual findings.
Verifiable. Other researchers can check on the
correctness of its results by replicating the study
based on the methods and procedures
employed by the researcher.
Types/Classifications of Research

There are different ways of classifying research. On the

basis of who undertakes research, research can either
be academic research or a research project. Academic
research is one conducted by an individual in fulfilling
the requirements for the conferment of an academic title
or degree. Baby theses, master’s theses, feasibility
studies, and doctoral dissertations fall under this type of
research. On the other hand, a research project is a
type of research undertaken by an individual or group of
individuals as part of their professional work or
assignment.
Based on the final use or application of research
results, research can either be pure/theoretical
or applied/practical. Pure or theoretical
research is one done for the purpose of
formulating a theory, principle, or law with no
intended application of results. Research in this
case is undertaken for the purpose of gaining
knowledge for knowledge’s sake. Conversely,
applied or practical research is an inquiry to
test or evaluate a theory or knowledge arrived
at, in the solution of a problem or for useful
ends.
When methodology or research design is used as
basis for categorizing research, research can
take any of the following types (Catane, 2000):

1. Descriptive Research. This type of research

endeavors to describe systematically, factually,
accurately and objectively a situation, problem
or phenomenon. It seeks to describe “what is”.
2. Correlational/Associational Research. In this
type of research, the investigator tries to probe
the significance of relationship between two or
more factors or characteristics.
3. Explanatory Research. In this type of inquiry,
the researcher seeks to clarify how and why a
relationship exists between two or more
aspects of a situation or phenomenon.
Questions like why job stress contributes to
burnout or why low morale can lead to low
productivity among the employees are
problems which can be investigated
systematically through the explanatory
research design.
4. Exploratory Research. This kind of study is undertaken
when the investigator is after probing or exploring
areas where little is known about the research
problem. Feasibility and pilot studies fall under this
type of research.
5. Experimental Research. In this type of research, the
researcher probes into the cause of an effect by
exposing one or more experimental groups to one or
more treatments or conditions. For example, when a
mathematics professor is after determining the
effectiveness of a learning module in raising the
performance of his students, he is actually engaging in
experimental research.
6. Ex-Post Facto/Causal-Comparative Research.
Research is of this type when the investigator
delves on analyzing the possible effect of a
factor which cannot be manipulated and
controlled. Example, a biology student who is
interested in determining the incidence of lung
cancer among heavy smokers is a situation
where this type of research is appropriate to
employ.
7. Historical Research. In historical research, the
researcher attempts to reconstruct the past
objectively and accurately or to explain an
incident that happened in the past with the use
of data taken from the past.
8. Ethnographic Research. This type of research
is done when the researcher is concerned with
explaining or describing a phenomenon
holistically with the use of multiple data
collection techniques.
With reference to the field of knowledge where the
problem being studied is associated with,
research maybe historical, sociological,
educational, psychological or medical.

It should be noted, however, that the above

classification of research is not absolute.
Various authors have different ways of
classifying research.
The Research Process

1. Idea-Generating Phase. Research begins with

an idea in which the researcher has interest. It is
in this phase wherein the researcher has to
identify topics that interest him most. It is in this
step where he has to justify why a study on a
particular topic is needed. Once a topic of
interest is already identified, the researcher has
to start reading articles and books, converse
with people who are knowledgeable in the area
and begin thinking about it.
2. Problem-Definition Phase. As the ideas generated in
the first phase are very general or vague, the
researcher has to redefine them. This is the problem-
definition phase. This particular step involves the
following activities:
a) identification and definition of the variables to be
studied;
b) development of the theoretical and conceptual
framework of the study;
c) the formulation of the major and specific
problems to be investigated &
d) the formulation of the hypothesis.
3. Procedures-Design Phase. After identifying the
problems and hypothesis, the researcher has to decide
on the methods and procedures he will use in the
collection and analysis of data. Activities a researcher
has to undertake in this place include the following:
a) decision on what research methodology to
employ;
b) selection of research participants;
c) development and validation of data-gathering
tools;
d) specification of the procedures to be observed in
the actual collection of data, and
e) planning the analysis of data gathered.
4. Data-Collection Phase. After preparing
the research plan, the researcher has to
proceed gathering the data from the
subjects of the study. It is in this phase
where the procedures devised in the
previous step, are implemented by the
researcher rigorously.
5. Data-Analysis Phase. In this particular
phase, the researcher analyzes the
collected data from the previous step,
based on his data analysis plan.
Appropriate qualitative and quantitative
techniques and procedures are then
applied for the data that have been
recorded, coded and tabulated.
6. Interpretation Phase. Having analyzed the
data, the researcher continues to make sense
out of them by interpreting the results in terms
of how they aid in responding to the researcher
problems posed at the beginning of the study,
and how this answer contributes to knowledge
in the field. After generating answers to the
problem, the researcher has to compare the
results predicted based on the theoretical
framework of the study.
7. Communication Phase. After completing
the data analysis and interpretation
phases, the researcher has to prepare a
written or oral report on the study
conducted, either for publication of
presentation to colleagues or a panel of
experts. This report has to include a
description of all the above steps in the
research process.
 Chapter 1
The Problem and Its Setting

Background of the Study

This should include the antecedents of the
study: a) the context of the problem and its
historical background, b) authoritative viewpoints
on the problem, c) the researcher’s interest in
working on the problem, and d) the purpose of
the study in relation to the problem.
 Chapter 1
The Problem and Its Setting. . . . . con’t

Statement of the Problem

A research problem is a problem that
someone would like to research on or perhaps,
that which a person finds unsatisfactory or
unsettling; a difficulty of some sort, or a state
of affairs that needs to be changed.
Sources of Problems
Actual problems encountered
Theories
Technological changes and curricular development
The graduate academic experience
Consultation
Specialization
Analysis of an area of knowledge
Consideration of existing practices and needs
Repetition or extension of an investigation
“Off-shoots” of studies under way
Elements of Research Problem
The term research problem implies that
an investigation, inquiry or study is to be
conducted, or that a problem is ready for
investigation, inquiry or study. There are
certain elements that a problem must
possess before it becomes a research
problem ready for investigation.
Elements of Research Problem
1. Aim or purpose of the problem for
investigation. This answers the question
WHY? Why is there an investigation,
inquiry or study?
2. The subject matter or topic to be
investigated. This answers the question
WHAT? What is to be investigated?
3. The place or locale where the research
is to be conducted. This answers the
question WHERE? Where is the study to
be conducted?
4. The period or time of the study during
which the data are to be gathered. This
answers the question WHEN? When is
the study to be carried out?
5. Population or universe from whom the data
are to be collected. This answers the questions
WHO? Or from WHOM? Who are the
respondents? From whom are the data to be
gathered?

Elements: a) purpose; b) subject matter; c) place

or locale; d) period or time and e) population or
universe
It answers the questions – why, what, where, when
and who or from whom?
Title of the Study
Ex. SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND HUMAN RELATIONS AMONG
EMPLOYEES OF LGU VIRAC, CY 2020

In formulating the title, the aim is usually omitted and sometimes the population
and time are omitted.

Ex: Aim/purpose : To determine the relationship

between
Subject Matter : Social Responsibility and Human Relation
Place or locale : LGU Virac
Period or time : CY 2020
Population : Employees
Types of Research Problem

A descriptive research question typically asks “what is”

and suggests a survey design.
Examples:
1. What are the work values professed by Filipino
seafarers?
2. What is the level of commitment of public school
teachers to online instruction delivery?
3. What is the job performance of LGU employees during
the pandemic?
A difference research question typically asks “Is there a difference
between two groups or two or more treatments?” This type of
question is used when the researcher compares two or more
observations.

Examples:
1. How do male and female pupils compare in their coping
mechanisms?
2. Is there a significant difference in the study habits of
students when grouped according to family economic
status?
3. How significant is the difference in the coping
mechanisms employed by public school teachers when
categorized according to the profile variables?
A relationship research question asks “What is the relationship
between two or more variables?” and implies a correlation design.

Examples:
1. Is there a significant relationship between the study
habits of maritime seniors and their academic
performance?
2. How significant is the relationship between job stressors
and coping strategies of CC faculty?
3. Does self-concept relate to student achievement in
English, Mathematics and Science?
4. Is organizational commitment related to the faculty’s
length of service in Catanduanes Colleges?
Guidelines in Writing the Title

1. Generally, the title is formulated before the start of the research

work. It may be revised or refined later if there is a need.
2. The title must contain the subject matter of the study, the population,
and the period when the data were gathered or will be gathered.
3. It must be broad enough to include all aspects of the subject matter
to be studied. Hence, the title indicates what is expected to be
found inside the thesis report.
4. It must be as brief and concise as possible
Avoid using the terms “An Analysis… An Investigation of …, A Study
of …”
5. If the title contains more than one line, it must be written like an
inverted pyramid, all words in capital letters.
Guidelines in Formulating General and Sub-Problems

1. The general statement of the problem and specific sub-problems

should be formulated first before conducting the research.
2. It is customary to state the specific problems in the interrogative
form.
3. Each specific question must be clear and unequivocal that is, it has
only one meaning. It must not have dual meanings.
4. Each specific question is researchable apart from the other
questions that is, answers to each specific question can be found
even without considering the other questions.
5. Each specific question must be based upon known facts and
phenomena. Besides, data from such known facts and phenomena
must be accessible to make specific questions researchable.
6. Answers to each question can be interpreted apart from the answers
to other specific questions.
7. Answers to each specific question must contribute to the
development of the whole research topic.
8. Summing up the answers to all the specific questions will give a
complete development of the entire study.
9. The study of specific questions should be enough to cover the
development of the whole research problem. Before writing down
the specific questions, determine first the different aspects of the
research problem to be studied and then for each aspect make
one specific question with sub-questions if there is a need.
10. Generally, there should be a general statement of the problem and
then, this should be broken up into as many sub-problems or
specific questions as necessary.
Steps in Writing the Sub-Problems or
Specific Problems
Step 1. Write the general or main problem
of the study.
Example: This study will determine the
relationship between social responsibility
and human relations among employees of
LGU Virac, CY 2020?
Step 2. Identify the variables of the study. A
variable is a characteristic that has two or
more mutually exclusive values of
properties (Sevilla, et. al, 1988). Variables
or constructs are those that the
researcher wants to investigate

Step 3. Analyze how the key and auxiliary

concerns may be classified.
Step 4. Decide on the option.
a. Focus only on the key concerns
b. Include the auxiliary concerns (which one).
Or, include all the identified auxiliary
concerns
c. Focus on one classification of key concern
and include all the auxiliary concerns
d. Other probable mix
Step 5. Write the specific questions.
This study will determine the relationship
between social responsibility and human
relation among employees of LGU Virac,
CY 2020. (Main Problem).
(Sub-Problems)
Specifically, this study will seek answers to the following
sub-problems:
1. What is the social responsibility of the employees of LGU
Virac?
2. What is the human relations of the employees of LGU
Virac in terms of:
2.1 interpersonal relationship
2.2 intrapersonal relationship
3. Is there a significant relationship between the social
responsibility and human relation of the employees of
LGU Virac?
 Chapter 1
The Problem and Its Setting. . . . . con’t

Research Hypothesis
A hypothesis is an ‘educated guess’ or an intelligent
tentative answer to a problem that needs to be tested;
the operationalization of the research theory.
A hypothesis is “an expectation about events based on
generalizations of the assumed relationship between
variables (Tuckman).
Hypotheses are used to examine theories in conditional
syllogisms
There are actually two types of hypotheses:
the null hypothesis and the alternative
hypothesis. The two hypotheses are
related in such a way that one is the
negation of the other, and vice versa.
Format of hypothesis predicting difference:
Subjects (or people) who are
high in (or low in, characterized as, exposed to,
etc.) self-esteem
will have greater (or more, or higher, or less)
attitude change in response to persuasive
messages
than others who are low (high in or not
characterized as, not exposed to, etc)
in self-esteem.
Format of hypothesis predicting simple
relationships
There will be a direct (or positive, or negative, or
inverse, or curvilinear) relationship
between amount of eye contact used by
speakers and credibility ratings
or
As the amount of eye contact used by speakers
increases, the credibility ratings of the speakers
increase.
Nondirectional hypotheses simply state that there
will be some kind of relationship between
variables. They sometimes referred to as “two-
tailed” hypotheses.
Ex. There is a difference in the amount of
television watched by children from
Protestant and Catholic homes.
Ex. There is a difference in the birth weights of
infants of addicted and non-addicted
mothers.
Directional hypotheses state the form of the
differences
Ex. Protestant children watch more
television than Catholic children
Ex. Infants of addicted mothers have lower
birth weights compared to infants
of non-addicted mothers
Scope and Delimitation

The scope and delimitation of the study aligns and focuses the
research in the desired and expected perspective. This can be
defined in terms of:

a. Geographical area What is the geographical coverage?

b. Time Frame What is the time limit?
c. Variables What variables are included? Excluded?
d. Unit of Analysis What is being studied? Individuals?
Groups?
Importance of the Study
This is a critical evaluation of the merits of
the results of the study. At the proposal
stage, the significance is mere
speculated contributions. The
significance of the study delineates the
importance of the research being
undertaken to specific individuals, entities,
institutions, organizations and other
segments of society
At the final stage, this should give the contribution
of the specific results to:
a. particular clientele – individuals, institutions,
groups
b. solution of a societal problem – practical value
c. theory building/theory making (theoretical
value)
d. research methodology and design – literature
review, research instrument, novel design
Definition of Terms
This is more appropriately labeled as Definition of
Variables. This means that only the key words in the title
and problem are defined. Definition is both conceptual
and operational.
Conceptual definition gives the term’s universal
meaning; operational definition specifies how it is
manipulated by the researcher or how it is measured.

Enumeration is done as the term appears in the

text/title, not alphabetically as a glossary. Terms are
grouped as concepts and constructs.
Variables are qualities, properties, or
characteristics of people, things, events or
situations under study that vary from one
person to another. These variables are
assessed and measured quantitatively and
qualitatively.
Characteristic of Variables
a. They have two or more mutually exclusive
values or properties that can be quantitatively
or qualitatively measured. Ex. height, weight,
sex, age, blood type, vital signs.
b. They are varying factors that affect the
phenomenon, nursing situations or cases under
study. Ex. anxiety level, body temperature,
weather conditions
c. They are varying qualities of people, institutions,
situations or statuses. Ex. types of hospitals,
level of care, community services
d. They can be heterogeneous when the
attributes or characteristics of a group
being studied are extremely varied. Ex.
height and weight among adolescents are
varied
e. They can be homogeneous if the
attributes or characteristics of a group
being studied have limited variability. Ex.
height and weight of infants.
Types of Variables
1. Independent variable (IV). This a factor that is
being manipulated by the researcher and the
focus of inquiry. It is also called experimental,
treatment, causal or stimulus variables. The
variability of the independent variable influences
to a great extent the variability of the dependent
variable being studied. Ex. amount of TV
watched
2. Dependent variable (DV). This is the factor or
variable that is affected or influenced by the
independent variable. It is also called criterion,
effect, response or outcome variable which
captures the interest of the researcher. It reflects
change brought about or caused by the
independent variable, which requires analysis,
interpretation and the implications of the findings
of the study. Ex. level of anxiety about Covid19
infection.
3. Intervening variable. This is a factor or variable
that exists between the independent and the
dependent variable. It explains why the
relationship exists, and bears influence on the
effect of the independent variable on the
dependent variable. This is also called as
mediator variable.
4. Moderator variable (MV). This is a variable that
affects the strength or direction of the
relationship between the IV and the DV. The IV
interacts with the MV which makes the
relationship of the IV and DV stronger or weaker.
Indicators are statements of traits, characteristics, trends
and practices that define or describe the variables. They
represent certain criteria being evaluated.

Variables Indicators
a. Job performance Levels, categories
b. Graduate education Diploma, MA, PhD,
c. Emotional distress Extent or degree (mild,
moderate, severe) of
emotional distress
 Chapter 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

(Introductory Paragraph)
Related Literature
(contains both foreign and local literature)
Related Studies
(contains both foreign and local studies)
Synthesis of the State-of-the-Art
Gap/s to be Bridged by the Present Study
Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
1. Purpose of the Review. It can provide information on:
* The topic – an insight into the state-of-the-art/practice
in a given area/topic
* Sources of research topics/problems – the scope of
research in a given topic may be refined; new
variables; new hypotheses.
* Research process – research design, sampling plan,
instrumentation (validated questionnaires, rating
scales, tests, inventories, etc.)
* Existing knowledge to which the results can be linked;
standard norms for data interpretation.
2. The Importance of the Review is Threefold:
* To put the problem in context of existing knowledge
* To assure the reader that the study is novel or new
(does not duplicate any existing study, except as a
replication)
* Even with reference to previous studies, the review is
not an exhaustive resume of previous works of
others, but
- to define the scope of previous works, and -
to establish relationship of the present research to
previous works (additive contribution to the build- up
of knowledge)
3. The Review Process
Bibliothetic Skills
* Library research plan – INTERNET, books, journals, abstracts, etc.
* Tools – index cards, tape recorders,etc.
Type of Literature
* Foreign/global – to give the topic universal touch
* Local – for specificity/indigenous character
Criteria for the Choice
* Availability of the materials
* Relatedness of the material to the topic, population of the study
Actual Search
* Check in the library for the availability of materials in the index cards
* Go over the open-shelves
* Access database in the web, etc.
Actual Review
* Read through the materials and evaluate for:
relevance – solution to a societal problem
confidence – critical and compelling results
timeliness
global Implications
gap-filling – contribution to theory-
building/making
relatedness to topic (content, population,
area, methodology,etc.
* Decide on which material to include/exclude
 * Among the selected materials, include the following
# Brief write-up on the
* Problem (main and sub-problems), alternate
hypotheses and assumptions, theoretical
framework, research design, population and
sample, sampling process,
instrumentation and its validation
* Findings, conclusions and recommendations

# Critique on the validity of the conclusions

4. The Review Write-Up

*Traditional: disadvantage - repetitive, lacks

coherence, disparate
a. foreign-local dichotomy
b. literature-studies dichotomy
c. comparative (similarities/differences
variety)
* Contemporary
a. Topical format – each topic sums up the salient
conceptual schemes/themes
b. Problem-cause-solution format – the general
trend of ideas/themes can serve as answers
to a question
c. Developmental process – logical sequencing:
inductive (from specifics to general),
deductive (from general to specific)
d. Known to the unknown – state of the art/practice
(known) to the lacunae/gaps (unknown)
which can be stated in the form of questions
The review is a literary publishable piece. It is an essay on what is
known about a particular topic/subject. Its characteristics are:

* Organization – achieved by a good heading system of table of

contents
* Order – mapping devices
- clarity of expression: simple direct sentences
- Focus – use of topic sentences
* System – consistency of
- Subject-verb agreement in the various parts of the
paper and
- Use of voice - active more than passive
sentences

The review must be summarized to give a picture of “what is known”

and “what is not known” (gaps/lacunae)
Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
As soon as the researcher has chosen the research
topic, he should look for a theory or principle that links
the topic to available body of knowledge.

A theory is an organized body of concepts synthesized

from studies, related facts or observations which serves
as an accepted explanation for the existence of truth of
something. (See, et.al., 2000). It is also a set of
interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions and
propositions that presents a systematic view of
phenomena by specifying relations among variables,
with the purpose of explaining and predicting the
phenomena (Kerlinger, 1986).
The theoretical framework is the skeletal
model of the research. It is the basic
structure on which the research study is
built. In fact, it is the research study’s frame
of reference which provides the very
foundation for which the study is being
conducted.
Formulating the Theoretical Framework
The framework presents the theory which explains why the
problem under study exists. Thus, the TF is but a theory
that serves as a basis for conducting research.
Reasons for formulating the framework:
• It helps the researcher see clearly the variables of the
study
• It can provide him with a general framework for data
analysis
• It is essential in preparing a research proposal using
descriptive and experimental methods.
The conceptual framework, which is the
operationalization of the theory, refers to a model
which explains how variables are interrelated
  What to do _
 Identify the independent variables;
• Mention the dependent variable and its
indicators and categories;
• Point out the intervening variables that can
explain variances in the dependent and
independent variables; and
• Show the direction of the study.
 Chapter 3
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

(Introductory Paragraph)
Research Design
Research Design is the research plan or scheme to
be implemented in answering the research problems.
Research Methodology consists of sets of rules and
procedures that require consistent applications. It
determines the tools and techniques by which you can
systematically arrive at the solution of your problem.
 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
1. One Group Design
* One Group Post-test Study

Experimental Group

Treatment X

Post-test A
 * One Group Pre-test Post-test Study

Experimental Group

Pre-test A

Treatment X

Post-test A
2. Group Comparison Design
* Group Comparison Post-test Study

Experimental Group Control Group

Treatment X

Post-test A Post-test A
* Group Comparison Pre-test Post-test Study

Experimental Group Control Group

Pre-test A Pre-test A

Treatment X

Post-test A Post-test A
3. Experimental Group Comparison Design
* Experimental Group Comparison Post-test
Study

Experimental Group 1 Experimental Group 2

Treatment X Treatment X

Post-test A Post-test A
* Experimental Group Comparison Pre-test Post-test
Study

Experimental Group 1 Experimental Group 2

Pre-test A Pre-test A

Treatment X Treatment X

Post-test A Post-test A
 * Solomon Four Group Design

Experimental Control Experimental Control

Group Group Group Group

Pre-test Pre-test

Treatment X Treatment X Treatment X Treatment X

Post-test Post-test Post-test Post-test

 Chapter 3
RESEARCH DESIGN . . . . con’t.

Sources of Data
* Primary sources - respondents
* Secondary sources – reports, books, journals, etc,
* Tertiary sources – accounts of witnesses of events, oral
history

Sampling Technique
* Respondents and Sample
* Sampling Plan: sample size, sampling procedure
Sampling Concepts and Terminologies
1. Element is that unit about which information is
collected and which provides the basis for
analysis. They are the members of the
population – types of people, families, social
clubs, etc.
2.Population is the theoretically specific
aggregation of the elements. This is also called
the universe. Ex. all nursing students
3. Study population is that aggregation of the
elements from which the sample is actually
selected. Ex. only first-courser nursing students
4. Sample. These are the elements (people) who
are actually selected to participate or to be the
subject of the study.
5. Sampling unit is the element or set of elements
considered for selection in some state of
sampling.
6. Sampling frame is the actual list of sampling
units from which the sample is selected. Ex. if
a sample of nursing students is selected from
a student roster, the roster in the sampling
frame.
7. Variable is a set of exclusive attribute. Ex. sex,
age, employment status
8. Parameter is the summary description of a
given variable in a population. The mean
income, the mean age are parameters. The
age distribution of all people is a parameter.
9. Sampling error is the degree of error of a
sample statistics when compared with the
sample parameter. The maximum sampling
error is 5%.
10. Sampling stratum is that group, section
or category of elements from which
selection is made in some stage of
sampling. In a single-stage sampling, the
sampling stratum is the population. In a
more complex sampling, different levels
of sampling strata may be employed
Types of Sampling
1. Probability Sampling. In probability
sampling, the sample is a proportion (a
certain percentage) of the population and
such sample is selected from the
population by means of some systematic
way in which every element of the
population has a chance of being included
in the sample.
2. Non-Probability sampling. In non-probability
sampling the sample is not a proportion
of the population and there is no system
in selecting the sample. The selection
depends upon the situation.
Types of Non-Probability Sampling
1. Accidental or convenience sampling. Uses the
most readily available or most convenient group
of people or objects as study respondents.
2. Quota sampling. Divides the population into
homogeneous strata or sub-population to ensure
representative proportions of the various strata
in the sample.
3. Purposive or Judgment sampling. Subjects
are handpicked to be included in the sampling
frame based on certain qualities for purposes
of the study Subjects as viewed as “typical
cases” or “experts” that provide enough data to
answer the research questions
4. Snowball or network sampling. Consists of
the identification of a few persons who meet
the requisite characteristics of the study and
who in turn refer other individuals who may be
interviewed until the desired number of
respondents is reached.
Types of Probability Sampling
1. Pure Random Sampling. This type of
sampling is one in which every one in the
population has an equal chance of being
selected or included in the sample. This
type of sampling is commonly known as
lottery or raffle type of sampling. Pure
random sampling can be used if there are
no levels, sections or classes identifies.
The following are the simple steps in pure random
sampling:

a. Determine the population of the study.

b. Determine the desired sample size (Use Slovin’s or Gay’s
formula)
c. List down the respondents (population) of the study in a sheet of
paper.
d. Write in small sheets of paper names of the respondents or
codes, roll these pieces of papers and place them in a box big
enough to accommodate them. Shake thoroughly the box.
e. Draw the sample one at a time until the desired sample size is
drawn. The names drawn are included in the sample.
2. Systematic Sampling. In this technique,
every nth name in a list may be selected
to be included in the sample. This is
used when the respondents are arranged
in some systematic or logical manner
such as alphabetical arrangement,
residential arrangement, geographical
placement.
The formula applied is:

K = N
n
Where: K = desired interval
N = population
n = sample size
The following are the procedures in doing a systematic
sampling:

a. Identify the population of the study.

b. Determine the desired sample size, then apply the formula
above. For example, if you have a population of 800 and your
desired sample size is 10%, then, you will have a sample of 80.
Applying the formula above (800/80 = 10), the sampling interval
is 10.
c. Hence, every 10th in the list (or arrangement of households as
the case may be) is taken as a member of the sample.
d. Close your eyes and run your finger down the list and then stop.
The number which the finger points to, is the random start
number.
e. From the random start number, pick every 10th in the list until
desired sample size of 80 is obtained.
3. Stratified Random Sampling. It is the
process of selecting randomly, samples
from the strata of the population used in
the study. This technique is used when
the respondents of the study has class
stratification or grouping.
The following procedures should be observed:
a. Determine the stratum or class to which all elements
in the population belong.
b. Group elements of the population according to the
characteristics inherent in the whole class or stratum.
c. Apply either the pure random sampling method or
systematic sampling in the actual selection of the
sample. Do this for every class or stratum (Note: the
sample size should be proportional or the same
percentage is applied for each class or stratum)
4. Cluster Sampling or multistage sampling is
used when the population is so big or the
geographical area of the research is so
large. The procedure usually involves
dividing the population into clusters or
groups and within the final cluster apply
any of the methods of selecting sample.
Determination of Sample Size
1. Slovin Formula
n = ____N_____
1 + Ne2
Where: n = sample size
N = population size
e = desired
margin of error
2. Gay (1976) offers some minimum acceptable sizes
depending on the research as follows:

a. Descriptive research. 10% of the population. For a

smaller population, a minimum of 20% may be
required.
b. Correlation study. 30 subjects
c. Ex-post facto or causal comparative research. 15
subjects per group
d. Experimental research. 15 subjects per group. Some
authorities believe that 30 per group should be
considered minimum.
 Chapter 3
RESEARCH DESIGN . . . . con’t.

Sources of Data: Primary (the respondents) and

Secondary (books, online journals, published theses and
dissertations
Instrumentation and Validation
* Kind of Instrument
- Construction of the Instrument/s, ex. questionnaire
- Parts of questionnaire
* Validity and Reliability
- Face Validity, content validity, etc.
- Reliability tests
* Evaluation and Scoring
- Scaling, interval, etc.
Data Gathering Procedure

• Preliminaries i.e. Letter to Bgry.

Capt./Dean/Manager/Respondents, etc.
• Orientation/briefing of enumerators/interviewers, etc.
• Distribution System
• Retrieval rate –absence of bias group
• Follow-up activities to achieve the desired retrieval rate
Statistical Treatment of Data

* Editing, coding, collating in the master

data sheet
* Inputting data into the computer
* Statistical tools to be used: non-
parametric or inferential
Selection of the Appropriate Statistical
Tests

The choice of an appropriate test

statistics and techniques is dependent
upon several variables:
A. Type of Research Questions

a. Descriptive – make use of descriptive or summary

statistics like frequency count, relative frequency or
percentage, arithmetic mean, weighted mean, ratio
and proportion, standard deviation and coefficient of
variation.
b. Relationship – make use of correlation statistics and
tests for ascertaining the significance of the
obtained correlational coefficient.
c. Difference – use tests of difference
B. Nature of Data

a. Nominal Data – data on the number of individuals or

items falling in a particular category. Ex. no. of
respondents according to gender or civil status
b. Ordinal Data – data about rank or order. Responses to
attitudinal questions, using the Likert Scale are
essentially ordinal data
c. Metric Data –data which can be subjected to
arithmetical computations – added, subtracted,
multiplied or divided. Ex. age, temperature reading,
monetary transactions, height.
C. Hypotheses to be Tested

a. probing into association of two or

more variables, employ correlational
techniques and tests for determining the
significance of the computed coefficient of
correlation or association.
b. comparing two or more group of
research participants on one or more
variables, utilize test of significance.
D. Assumptions about the Nature of the Population
a. parametric tests are used with data gathered
from respondents who are drawn from
normally distributed population and with
population variances within groups that are
homogenous.
b. when the above-cited assumptions are not
met, the researchers should consider
distribution-free or non-parametric tests of
significance.
 Chapter 3
RESEARCH DESIGN . . . . con’t.

Some Parametric and Non-Parametric

Techniques
Tests of Relationship or Association. These are
used to indicate the degree to which two or more
sets of scores or observations are related or co-
vary. Correlation coefficients are used as
statistical summary of the nature of association
between two or more variables.
1. Pearson-Product Moment Correlation (rxy) –
the most commonly used measure of
relationship when data are metric. It shows the
linear relationship between two variables;
reveals the degree or magnitude of correlation
between two factors. T-test for testing rxy has to
be used to ascertain whether
correlation/association is statistically significant
or not.
2. Spearman Ranks (rho). It is used when ranks
are available for each of the two variables
being related. Recorded rho indicates how
much agreement there is between the ranks of
the variable. Likewise. It has to be subjected to
t-test for rho to determine its statistical
significance.
3. Coefficient of Concordance (W). It is usually
applied to determine whether agreement
exists among the ranking of three or
more groups of respondents on a
particular variable under study. W only
measures the magnitude of agreement
or concordance in ranking, not its
significance. To test the significance of
W, use the chi-square test for W.
4. Chi-square (X2). It is used as an inferential
statistics for nominal or categorical data. This
is the most versatile among the tests of
statistical significance, as it can be used both
as a test of relationship and difference. As a
test of relationship, it is called a test of
independence, As a test of difference, it is
considered a test of homogeneity.
5. Cramer’s V Statistics. Interpreted in the same
way as rxy, rho, and W, this is used in
assessing the strength of association between
two variables which were found to be
significantly related through the Chi-square
test of independence.
Tests of Difference. These are used when
comparisons are to be made between two
or more groups of respondents in terms of
a variable being analyzed
1. t-Test for Independent Samples. It is a
parametric test that is used in determining
whether the mean values of a variable in one
group of subjects is different from the mean
value on the same variable with a different
group of subjects. The variances of the two
groups must be homogenous, otherwise use a
non-parametric test for assessing the
significance of the differences between the two
groups of subjects.
2. t-Test for Correlated Samples. This test
is used when two groups of data that
have been matched are being compared
as in pretest-posttest design to see if any
observed mean gain is significant.
3. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). It is used to
find out if there are significant differences
between the means of three or more groups on
a variable under study. It can be one-way, two-
way or repeated measure ANOVA, depending
on the number of categories to be used as
basis for comparison. When a significant F
ratio is obtained using this statistical model,
the researcher need to employ post-hoc tests
to determine those means that are different
from each other.
4. Friedman Analysis of Variance (F). It is
the non-parametric equivalent of the two-
way ANOVA. In this test, three or more
groups are being compared on a
particular variable, based on a
classificatory characteristic or factor.
 CHAPTER 4
PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, AND
INTERPRETATION OF DATA

(Introductory Paragraph)
* Objectives or problems must be answered
categorically. The answers should
correspond to the number of questions.
* Data presentation /graphics – tables, graphs,
charts, diagrams, pictures
* Interpretation of the Data: Levels
Level 1 – Trends and Patterns
Level II – Interpretation: meaning of
results
Level III – Inferences and Integration of Findings.
This is done on two levels: Internally
by piecing out the small details to form
and integrated whole, and externally, by
establishing linkages with existing knowledge
through a reference to the reviewed
literature. This type of linkage will show
whether the results of the study would
support or contradict existing knowledge;
significant to the research theory-making and
theory building
Level IV - Implications of the results to
theory and practice in the
discipline and other disciplines
Analysis and Interpretation of Research Data

Research uses two kinds of data: qualitative data which are

mostly verbal; and quantitative data which are mostly
numerical. Once data are collected, they must be
analyzed before adequate interpretation can be made.
Through analysis, four things can be done:
a. describe the data clearly
b. identify what is typical or atypical among data
c. bring to light differences, relationships and other
patterns existent in the data
d. answer research questions or test hypotheses.
Qualitative data are analyzed logico-inductively, a thought
process that utilizes logic to make sense of observations
in which –
a. observations are made of behaviours, situations,
interactions, objects and environments
b. topics are identified from the observations and are
c. scrutinized to discover patterns and categories, then
d. conclusions are deduced from what is observed and
are stated verbally and finally.
e. Those conclusions are used to answer research
questions
Quantitative data are analyzed mathematically
and the results are expressed in statistical
terminology. Statistical analysis is used to –
a. depict what is typical and atypical among the
data
b. show degree of difference or relationship
between two or more variables, and
c. determine the likelihood that the findings are
real for the population as opposed to having
occurred only by chance in the sample
Methods of Analyzing Qualitative Data
a. Comparative Method of Analysis. This relies on
comparison and contrast in the analysis of a
phenomena, object, or situation. Things to be
compared or contrasted have to belong to same
category or class. There has to be a basis for
comparison
b. Institutional Method of Analysis. This examines
the characteristics, behaviour patterns, roles,
structures, functions and even development of
established or observed institutions.
3. Descriptive Method of Analysis. One has to
present in greater details the nature or
characteristics of the phenomenon or situation
being described. Data analysis takes the forms
of establishing categories or typologies; and
determining sequence of events or patterns of
behaviour,
4. Historical analysis. This explains events and
phenomena in the past so as to understand
the present.
5. Inductive Analysis. This follows the pattern of
thinking and reasoning that starts from specific
to universal.
6. Deductive Analysis. The opposite of inductive
method.
7. Content Analysis. This is documentary analysis.
8.Theory-based Analysis. Analysis and
interpretation of data are related to the
presuppositions of the theory.
Methods of Analyzing Quantitative Data

Quantitative analysis is employed when the data to

be analyzed are numerical or information which
was assigned numerical values to facilitate
counting, summarization, comparison and
generalization. Through statistics, the researcher
can –
1. summarize data and reveal what is
typical and atypical within the group

2. show relative standing of individuals in a

group through the use of percentile
rankings, grade equivalents, age,
equivalents, etc.
4. show relationship among variables by
means of statistical correlations

5. show similarities and differences among

groups with the use of the tests of
differences
5. identify error that is inherent in the
selection of samples

6. test for significance of findings; and

7. make other inferences about the

population
Analytic Procedures for Quantitative Data

1. Descriptive Analysis.

a. identify the general characteristics of a group, with

the use of descriptive statistics such as frequency,
percentage, mean, median, and mode.

b. determine differences in the group or how members

of a group vary with reference to a given variable or
factor being studied with the use of the standard
deviation and coefficient of variation.
2. Univariate Analysis. Used to analyze one
variable or factor at a time such as levels of
commitment or job performance. Relies heavily
on the use of summary statistics: measure
of central tendency (mean, mode, median) and
measures of variability (minimum and maximum
values, range, standard deviation, quartile
deviation).
3. Bivariate Analysis. This is used when the
researcher is interested in probing into the
relationship of two variables at a time.
4. Multivariate Analysis. This permits the
determination of the degree of relationship
between one dependent variable and two or
more independent variables simultaneously.
Statistics used are multiple regression analysis
and multiple classification analysis.
5. Comparative Analysis. This is used when
research participants have to be compared
on the basis of certain variables being studied.
Interpretation of Research Data

1. One of the major aspects of data interpretation

is the effort to establish continuity in research
undertaking. This can be done by relating the
results of the study with those of other studies.
One has to indicate whether results of his study
jibe or run counter to the results of previous
studies on the same topic or variable.
2. Another aspect of data interpretation is
the establishment of explanatory
concepts – providing explanation as to
the status of a phenomenon, situation,
environment, people, event or object that
was studied.
 CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS
AND RECOMMENDATIONS

(Introductory Paragraph)
* Review of Problem/Sub-Problems
* Methods of Research
* Respondents and Methods of Sampling
Summary of Findings

The findings of the study are the data results of the research. They
possess the following characteristics:
1. Findings should be summarized for each objective or
question in the statement of problem
2. Numbering of summary of findings should be the same with
the number of questions in the statement of the
problem/sub-problems.
3. Every problem/hypothesis has a corresponding finding.
4. Findings are the answers to the hypotheses of the research
5. Findings of the study are enumerated. No analysis is done in
this Chapter
6. The findings in a research are consistent with the research
problems.
Conclusions
Conclusions are statements formulated as a
result of the findings. They basically bring to an
end the research study by giving logical
inferences and generalizations. In other words,
the conclusions present the concrete resolution
of the research problems. Take note of the
following:
1. Conclusions should be based on the arrived findings.
Generally, every finding should generate a
corresponding conclusion. In certain instances, they
can be grouped together

2. Conclusions are written in statement form.

3. Conclusions are generally enumerated. No analysis

should be done.

4. The conclusions are consistent with the findings, the

sub-problems and the hypotheses of your study.
Recommendations

Recommendations should be based on the

findings and conclusions. They are relevant
suggestions which are based on the previously
stated conclusions. In writing the
recommendations, take note of the following:
1. Recommendations have to be specific, relevant
and worthy of acceptance
2. Recommendations may include improvements,
changes, additions and deletions as long as
they are realistic, feasible and relevant
3. Recommendations are written in statement form
4. Recommendations are enumerated
5.Recommendations are consistent with the
conclusions, the findings, the sub-problems and
the hypotheses of the study.
REFERENCES
Books
Journals
Published Theses/Dissertations
Orders/Memoranda
Electronic References

APPENDICES
Letters of Request
Questionnaire
Editor’s Certificate
Statistician’s Certificate, etc.
Attribution Table

CURRICULUM VITAE