Mathematics-II

Unit-2

BCA-102.
Unit 2- Partial Order Relations & Lattices.
Partial Order Relations
A relation R on a set X is a partial order relation if it is:

● Reflexive
● Anti-Symmetric
● Transitive

(X, R) is called partially ordered set or POSET.

➢ Anti-Symmetric: A relation R on a set x is said to be an anti symmetric

relation when, if (x, y) ∈ R and (y, x) ∈ R, then x = y.
Examples:
1) Ã → Collection of all subsets of S

R → ⊆ (Subset/ Set inclusion)

Reflexive✅, anti-symmetric✅, transitive✅

Thus, (Ã, ⊆) is a POSET

2) (N, ≤ ) is a POSET, but (N, <) is not a POSET.
3) N → Set of natural numbers

R → a ∼ b ⇔ a divides b

(N, R) is a POSET
Dual of a Partial Order Relation
● If R is a Partial Order Relation then R-1 is also a Partial Order Relation.
● Let (A, R) be a POSET, then (A, R-1) is also a POSET.
● R-1 is called the dual of the Partial Order Relation R.

Comparability of elements in a relation:

Let (A, R) be a POSET; Then, elements a and b are said to be comparable if either
(a, b) ∈ R or (b,a) ∈ R.

Eg. (N, R(divisibility relation)) is a POSET,

in which (5, 7) ∉ R, so it is not comparable, in this relation.

Chain
If every pair of elements in the POSET (A, R) is comparable, then we say that a is a
Chain.
● A chain can be totally ordered or linearly ordered.

For Example: POSETS (N, ≤ ) and (N, ≥ ) are chains.

Q. A= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 12, 18 }, R= ‘ ≤ ‘. Is POSET (A, R) a chain?

➔ Length of a Chain: Total number of elements in a chain is called the

length of the chain.
➔ Anti-chain: A POSET which is not a chain is called an Antichain
Hasse Diagram
The Diagram of a partial order relation, obtained from its Digraph, by omitting
all cycles of length 1, and the edges implied by transitivity, and arranging all
the arrows such that they are pointing upwards, is called a Hasse diagram of
the POSET.
Example: A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 12 }
R → a ∼ b ⇔ a divides b
(A, R) is a POSET.

This is digraph of (A, R)

Now, after removing all cycles of length one,
we have:

After removing all transitivity conditions:

2 ~ 4, 4 ~ 12 ⇒ 2 ~ 12

1 ~ 3, 3 ~ 12 ⇒ 1 ~ 12

1 ~ 2, 2 ~ 4 ⇒ 1 ~ 4
After adjustments of directions of

arrows:

And after removing the arrow signs:

This is the Hasse diagram for (A, R).

 Example:
S = { a, b c } and à = P(S)
à = P(S)= { {}, {a}, {b}, {a, b}, {c}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c} }

R → ⊆ (Subset/ Set inclusion)

Initial Graph:
After removing transitivity:

Rearranging elements:
The final Hasse diagram as a three

dimensional structure, and is in the

shape of a cube:
Q. D24 = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24 } R = divisibility

● Dn is a set of all divisors of n.

Initial graph:
After removing transitivity and length one cycles:
Hasse diagram of D24:

Q. Construct Hasse diagrams of

D30 , D36 , D90

A Partition of a positive integer m is a set of positive integers
whose sum is m.
For m=5, { {5} , {4+1} , {3+2} , {3+1+1} , {2+2+1} , {2+1+1+1} , {1+1+1+1+1} }

P 1 ≤ P2 , iff the integers in P2 can be constructed by the sum of

integers in P1

For example:
{3+1+1} ≤ {4+1}

{1+1+1+1+1} ≤ {2+1+1+1}
Hasse diagram of set of partitions of m=5
 Important Definitions:
● Maximal element: Let A be a poset with respect to the relation ‘≤’. An
element a in A is said to be maximal element iff for every b in A either b ≤ a
or a and b are not comparable.
● Greatest element: An element a in A is said to be greatest element of A
iff for every b in A, b ≤ a.
● Minimal element: An element a in A is said to be minimal element iff for
every b in A either a ≤ b or a and b are not comparable.
● Least element: An element a in A is said to be greatest element of A iff
for every b in A, a ≤ b.
Maximal element: a1 , a2 , a3,

Minimal element: b1 , b2 , b3

Greatest element: Φ
Least element: Φ
Q. Let A = { { a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i } , ‘≤’ } has the following Hasse diagram:

Find:

1) Minimal and Maximal elements

2) Greatest and Least elements
Important Definitions:
Unit element: The greatest element, if exists, of a POSET is often called the
unit element. It is denoted by I.

Zero element: The greatest element, if exists, of a POSET is often called the
unit element. It is denoted by O.

Upper bound: Let (A, ≤) be a POSET and let B be a subset of A. An element a

∈ A is called an upper bound of B if b ≤ a for all b ∈ B.

Lower bound: Let (A, ≤) be a POSET and let B be a subset of A. An element a

∈ A is called an lower bound of B if a ≤ b for all b ∈ B.
Example
A = { a, b, c, d }

Lower bound: {b} = { a, c }

Upper bound: {b} = {b}

Lower bound: {d} = { a, c }

Upper bound: {d} = {d}

B = { a, b }

Upper bound:

{ c, d, e, f, g, h }

Lower bound:

Φ
Supremum and Infimum
Least Upper Bound (Supremum): Let (A, ≤) be a POSET and let B be a
subset of A. An element a ∈ A is called an least upper bound ( l.u.b. ) of B iff
1. a is an upper bound of B
2. a ≤ a’ , whenever a’ is an upper bound of B

Greatest Lower Bound: (Infimum): Let (A, ≤) be a POSET and let B be a

subset of A. An element a ∈ A is called an greatest lower ( g.l.b. ) of B iff
3. a is an lower bound of B
4. a ≤ a’ , whenever a’ is an lower bound of B
Q. A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 }

B = { 6, 7, 10 }

B is subset of A.
8
LUB and GLB of B:

Upper bounds: { 10, 11 }

LUB: 10

Lower Bound = GLB = 4

Lattices
A lattice is a POSET (L, ≤) in which every subset { a, b } consisting of two
elements has a least upper bound and a greatest lower bound.

● A lattice is a mathematical structure with two binary operations, join and

meet.
● We denote LUB( { a, b } ) by a V b and call it join or sum of a and b
● We denote GLB( { a, b } ) by a Λ b and call it meet or product of a and b

Other symbols used are:

● LUB: ⊕, ∪ , +
● GLB: *, ∩, •
Examples:
● Dn = Divisors of N

R = divisibility relation

Verify that: GLB(a, b) = GCD(a, b)

and LUB(a, b) = LCM(a, b)

● Let A be any set

P(A) is power set of A

( P(A) , ⊆ ) is a lattice
Hasse Diagram of { P(A) , ⊆ } is given:

A={a} , P(A) = { ɸ , {a} }

LUB { {a} , ɸ } = {a} ∪ ɸ = {a}

GLB { {a} , ɸ } = {a} ⋂ ɸ = ɸ

A={a,b} , P(A) = { ɸ , {a} , {b}, {a, b} }

Q. Verify { P(A) , ⊆ } is a lattice where A = { a, b, c }.

Examples:
D8= { 1, 2, 4, 8 }

D20 = { 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 20 }

D30 = ?
Is this a lattice?

No, given Hasse Diagram is not a

Lattice.

Because,

c V d and b Λ c do not exist.

Q. Is the adjoining diagram a lattice?

Dual of a Lattice
Let ( L , ≤) be a lattice. Then, ( L , ≥ ) is also a Lattice and is called Dual of the
lattice.

● ( L, ≤, V, Λ ) is called dual of ( L, ≥, Λ, V )

For Example, Let S be a finite set and P(S) be its power set. For ⊆ relation,
( P(S) , ⊆ ) is a POSET.

( P(S) , ⊇ ) is the dual of ( P(S) , ⊆ ).

Properties of Lattices Theorems:
Let ( L, ≤) be a lattice and a, b, c ∈ L. then, from the definition of join ( v ) and meet ( Λ ),
we have:

● a ≤ aVb and b ≤ aVb ; aVb is an upper bound of a and b

● if a ≤ c and b ≤ c, then aVb ≤ c; a≤b is the least bound of a and b.
● aΛb ≤ a and aΛb ≤ b; aΛb is a lower bound of a and b.
● if c ≤ a and c ≤ b, then c ≤ aΛb; aΛb is the greatest lower bound of a and b

Theorems:
a) a V b = b if and only if a ≤ b

b) a Λ b =a if and only if a ≤ b

c) a Λ b =a if and only if a v b = b
● A linearly ordered set is also a lattice.

Some important laws:

1. Idempotent Properties 3. Associative Properties

a) a v a = a a) a v (b v c)= (a v b) v c

b) a Λ a = a b) a Λ(b Λ c)= (a Λ b) Λ c

2. Commutative Properties 4. Absorption Properties

a) a v b = b v a a) a v (a Λ b) = a

b) a Λ b = b Λ a b) a Λ (a v b) = a
Sublattices
Let (L, ≤) be a lattice. A non-empty subset S of L is called a sublattice of L if
a V b ∈ S and a ⋀ b ∈ S, whenever a, b ∈ S.

● A subset of L (which is a lattice) need not be a lattice.

Example:

● Here, S ∈ L but S is not a lattice because a V b ∉ S.

Bounded Lattice
A lattice L is said to be bounded if it has a greatest element I and a least
element O.
For Example, ( Z+ , I ) is not a bounded lattice, but ( P(S) , ⊆ ) is a bounded
lattice.

Complement:
Let (L , V, ⋀, 0, I) be a bounded lattice with greatest element I and the least
element 0. Let a ∈ L. Then an element b ∈ L is called a complement of a if
a V b = I and a ⋀ b = 0 .

● It follows from this definition that 0 and I are complement of each other.
● Further, I is the only complement of 0.
Complemented Lattice
A lattice (L, V, ⋀, 1, 0) is called complemented if it is bounded and if every
element of L has at least one complement.

For example, The lattice (P(A), ⊆) of the power set of any set A is a bounded
lattice and a complemented lattice.

Distributive Lattice
A lattice (L, V, ⋀) is called a distributive lattice if for any elements a, b and c in
L,

(1) a ⋀ (b V c) = (a ⋀ b) V (a ⋀ c)

(2) a V (b ⋀ c) = (a V b) ⋀ ( a V c)

Properties (1) and (2) are called distributive properties.

For example,
● ( P(S) , ⊆ ) is a distributed lattice.
● On the contrary, the 5-element lattice given here is a non-distributive
lattice.

In this given lattice, we note that

a ⋀ (b V c) = a ⋀ I = a ,
while
(a ⋀ b) V (a ⋀ c) = b V 0 = b
Hence
a ⋀ (b V c) ≠ (a ⋀ b) V (a ⋀ c) ,
showing that (i) is non-distributive.
● Every chain is a distributive lattice.
Join-Irreducible Lattices
Let (L, ⋀, V) be a lattice. An element a ∈ L is said to be join-irreducible if it
cannot be expressed as the join of two distinct elements of L.

In other words, a L is join-irreducible if for any b, c ∈ L

a = b V c => a = b or a = c.

For example.

● 0 is join-irreducible

● Here, a is join-irreducible
Atoms
Those elements, which immediately succeed 0, are called atoms.

For example, a, b are atoms.

From the above discussion, it follows that the atoms are join-irreducible.
Thank you.

Efforts by

Jasmehr Kaur Bhatia

04114902020