LECTURE 3

Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude Modulation
Fundamentals
Fundamentals
 Topics Covered in Lecture 3

• 3-1: AM Concepts
• 3-2: Modulation Index and Percentage of
Modulation
• 3-3: Sidebands and the Frequency Domain
• 3-4: AM Power
• 3-5: Single-Sideband Modulation
• 3-6: Classification of Radio Emissions
3-1: AM Concepts
 3-1: AM Concepts

• In the modulation process, the voice, video,

or digital signal modifies another signal
called the carrier.
• In amplitude modulation (AM) the
information signal varies the amplitude of
the carrier sine wave.
 3-1: AM Concepts
• The instantaneous value of the carrier
amplitude changes in accordance with the
amplitude and frequency variations of the
modulating signal.
• An imaginary line called the envelope
connects the positive and negative peaks of
the carrier waveform.
 3-1: AM Concepts

Figure 3-1: Amplitude modulation. (a) The modulating or information signal.

 3-1: AM Concepts

Figure 3-1: Amplitude modulation. (b) The modulated carrier.

 3-1: AM Concepts

• In AM, it is particularly important that the

peak value of the modulating signal be less
than the peak value of the carrier.

Vm < Vc
 3-1: AM Concepts

• Distortion occurs when the amplitude of the

modulating signal is greater than the
amplitude of the carrier.
• A modulator is a circuit used to produce AM.
Amplitude modulators compute the product
of the carrier and modulating signals.
 3-1: AM Concepts

Figure 3-3: Amplitude modulator showing input and output signals.

3-2: Modulation Index and
Percentage of Modulation
 3-2: Modulation Index and Percentage of
Modulation

• The modulation index (m) is a value that

describes the relationship between the
amplitude of the modulating signal and the
amplitude of the carrier signal.

m = Vm / V c
 3-2: Modulation Index and Percentage of
Modulation

• This index is also known as the modulating

factor or coefficient, or the degree of
modulation.
• Multiplying the modulation index by 100
gives the percentage of modulation.
 3-2: Modulation Index and Percentage of
Modulation

Overmodulation and Distortion

– The modulation index should be a number
between 0 and 1.
– If the amplitude of the modulating voltage is
higher than the carrier voltage, m will be greater
than 1, causing distortion.
– If the distortion is great enough, the intelligence
signal becomes unintelligible.
 3-2: Modulation Index and Percentage of
Modulation

Overmodulation and Distortion

– Distortion of voice transmissions produces
garbled, harsh, or unnatural sounds in the
speaker.
– Distortion of video signals produces a scrambled
and inaccurate picture on a TV screen.
 3-2: Modulation Index and Percentage
of Modulation

Figure 3-4: Distortion of the envelope caused by overmodulation where the

modulating signal amplitude Vm is greater than the carrier signal Vc.
 3-2: Modulation Index and Percentage
of Modulation

Percentage of Modulation
– The modulation index is commonly computed from
measurements taken on the composite modulated
waveform.
– Using oscilloscope voltage values:

Vmax − Vmin
Vm =
2
 The amount, or depth, of AM is then expressed as the
percentage of modulation (100 × m) rather than as a fraction.
3-2: Modulation Index and Percentage
of Modulation

Figure 3-5: AM wave showing peaks (Vmax) and troughs (Vmin).

 3-3: Sidebands and
the Frequency Domain
3-3: Sidebands and the Frequency Domain

• Side frequencies, or sidebands are

generated as part of the modulation process
and occur in the frequency spectrum directly
above and below the carrier frequency.
 3-3: Sidebands and the Frequency Domain

Sideband Calculations
– Single-frequency sine-wave modulation generates two
sidebands.
– Complex wave (e.g. voice or video) modulation
generates a range of sidebands.
– The upper sideband (fUSB) and the lower sideband (fLSB)
are calculated:

fUSB = fc + fm and fLSB = fc − fm

3-3: Sidebands and the Frequency Domain

Figure 3-6: The AM wave is the algebraic sum of the carrier and upper and
lower sideband sine waves. (a) Intelligence or modulating signal. (b) Lower
sideband. (c ) Carrier. (d ) Upper sideband. (e ) Composite AM wave.
3-3: Sidebands and the Frequency Domain

Frequency-Domain Representation of AM
– Observing an AM signal on an oscilloscope, you see
only amplitude variations of the carrier with respect
to time.
– A plot of signal amplitude versus frequency is
referred to as frequency-domain display.
– A spectrum analyzer is used to display the
frequency domain as a signal.
– Bandwidth is the difference between the upper and
lower sideband frequencies.
BW = fUSB−fLSB
 3-3: Sidebands and the Frequency Domain

Figure 3-8: The relationship between the time and frequency domains.
3-3: Sidebands and the Frequency Domain

Frequency-Domain Representation of AM
• Example:
A standard AM broadcast station is allowed to transmit
modulating frequencies up to 5 kHz. If the AM station is
transmitting on a frequency of 980 kHz, what are
sideband frequencies and total bandwidth?
fUSB = 980 + 5 = 985 kHz
fLSB = 980 – 5 = 975 kHz
BW = fUSB – fLSB = 985 – 975 = 10 kHz
BW = 2 (5 kHz) = 10 kHz
3-3: Sidebands and the Frequency Domain

Pulse Modulation
– When complex signals such as pulses or
rectangular waves modulate a carrier, a broad
spectrum of sidebands is produced.
– A modulating square wave will produce sidebands
based on the fundamental sine wave as well as the
third, fifth, seventh, etc. harmonics.
– Amplitude modulation by square waves or
rectangular pulses is referred to as amplitude shift
keying (ASK).
– ASK is used in some types of data communications.
 3-3: Sidebands and the Frequency
Domain

Figure 3-11: Frequency spectrum of an AM signal modulated by a square wave.

 3-3: Sidebands and the Frequency Domain

Figure 3-12: Amplitude modulation of a sine wave carrier by a pulse or rectangular

wave is called amplitude-shift keying. (a) Fifty percent modulation. (b) One
hundred percent modulation.
3-3: Sidebands and the Frequency Domain

Pulse Modulation
– Continuous-wave (CW) transmission can be
achieved by turning the carrier off and on, as in
Morse code transmission.
– Continuous wave (CW) transmission is
sometimes referred to as On-Off keying (OOK).
– Splatter is a term used to describe harmonic
sideband interference.
3-4: AM Power
 3-4: AM Power
• In radio transmission, the AM signal is
amplified by a power amplifier.
• A radio antenna has a characteristic
impedance that is ideally almost pure
resistance.
• The AM signal is a composite of the carrier
and sideband signal voltages.
 3-4: AM Power

• Each signal produces power in the antenna.

• Total transmitted power (PT) is the sum of
carrier power (Pc ) and power of the two
sidebands (PUSB and PLSB).
 3-4: AM Power
• When the percentage of modulation is less
than the optimum 100, there is much less
power in the sidebands.
• Output power can be calculated by using the
formula:
PT = (IT)2R
where IT is measured RF current and R is
antenna impedance
 3-4: AM Power

• The greater the percentage of modulation,

the higher the sideband power and the
higher the total power transmitted.
• Power in each sideband is calculated

PSB = PLSB = PUSB = Pcm2 / 4

• Maximum power appears in the sidebands
when the carrier is 100 percent modulated.
3-5: Single-Sideband
Modulation
 3-5: Single-Sideband Modulation

• In amplitude modulation, two-thirds of the

transmitted power is in the carrier, which conveys
no information.

• Signal information is contained within the

sidebands.

• Single-sideband (SSB) is a form of AM where the

carrier is suppressed and one sideband is eliminated.
 3-5: Single-Sideband Modulation

DSB Signals
– The first step in generating an SSB signal is to
suppress the carrier, leaving the upper and
lower sidebands.
– This type of signal is called a double-sideband
suppressed carrier (DSSC) signal. No power is
wasted on the carrier.
 3-5: Single-Sideband Modulation

– A balanced modulator is a circuit used to

produce the sum and difference frequencies of a
DSSC signal but to cancel or balance out the
carrier.
– DSB is not widely used because the signal is
difficult to demodulate (recover) at the receiver.
 3-5: Single-Sideband Modulation

Figure 3-16: A frequency-domain display of DSB signal.

 3-5: Single-Sideband Modulation

SSB Signals
– One sideband is all that is necessary to convey
information in a signal.
– A single-sideband suppressed carrier (SSSC)
signal is generated by suppressing the carrier
and one sideband.
 3-5: Single-Sideband Modulation

SSB Signals
– SSB signals offer four major benefits:
1. Spectrum space is conserved and allows more
signals to be transmitted in the same frequency
range.
2. All power is channeled into a single sideband. This
produces a stronger signal that will carry farther and
will be more reliably received at greater distances.
3. Occupied bandwidth space is narrower and noise in
the signal is reduced.
4. There is less selective fading over long distances.
 3-5: Single-Sideband Modulation

Disadvantages of DSB and SSB

– Single and double-sideband are not widely used
because the signals are difficult to recover (i.e.
demodulate) at the receiver.
– A low power, pilot carrier is sometimes
transmitted along with sidebands in order to
more easily recover the signal at the receiver.
 3-5: Single-Sideband Modulation

Signal Power Considerations

– In SSB, the transmitter output is expressed in terms
of peak envelope power (PEP), the maximum
power produced on voice amplitude peaks.

Applications of DSB and SSB

– A vestigial sideband signal (VSB) is produced by
partially suppressing the lower sideband. This kind
of signal is used in TV transmission.
3-6: Classification of
Radio Emissions
 3-6: Classification of Radio Emissions

• A code is used to designate the types of signals that

can be transmitted by radio and wire.
• The code is made up of a capital letter and a number.
• Lowercase subscript letters are used for more
specific definition.
• Examples of codes:
– DSB two sidebands, full carrier = A3
– DSB two sidebands, suppressed carrier = A3b
– OOK and ASK = A1
3-6: Classification of Radio Emissions

• The International Telecommunications

Union (ITU), a standards organization, uses a
code to describe signals.
• Examples are:
– A3F amplitude-modulated analog TV
– J3E SSB voice
– F2D FSK data
– G7E phase-modulated voice, multiple signals
Figure 3-19: Radio emission code designations.
Figure 3-20: ITU emissions designations.