Chapter - 1

Miss USHA PADMA

Assistant Professor
Department of ETE
R V College Of Engineering
 1-1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS

The term telecommunication means communication at a

distance. The word data refers to information presented in
whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating and
using the data. Data communications are the exchange of
data between two devices via some form of transmission
medium such as a wire cable.

Topics discussed in this section:

 Components of a data communications system
 Data Flow
Figure 1.1 Components of a data communication system
Figure 1.2 Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)
 1-2 NETWORKS

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)

connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending
and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network. A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any
medium which can transport a signal carrying
information.
Topics discussed in this section:
 Network Criteria
 Physical Structures
 Categories of Networks
 Network Criteria

• Performance
– Depends on Network Elements
– Measured in terms of Delay and Throughput
• Reliability
– Failure rate of network components
– Measured in terms of availability/robustness
• Security
– Data protection against corruption/loss of data due to:
– Errors
– Malicious users
 Physical Structures

• Type of Connection
– Point to Point - single transmitter and receiver
– Multipoint - multiple recipients of single transmission
• Physical Topology
– Connection of devices
– Type of transmission - unicast, mulitcast, broadcast
Figure 1.3 Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint
Figure 1.4 Categories of topology
Figure 1.5 A fully connected mesh topology (five devices)
Figure 1.6 A star topology connecting four stations
Figure 1.7 A bus topology connecting three stations
Figure 1.8 A ring topology connecting six stations
Figure 1.9 A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks
 Categories of Networks

• Local Area Networks (LANs)

– Short distances
– Designed to provide local interconnectivity
• Wide Area Networks (WANs)
– Long distances
– Provide connectivity over large areas
• Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
– Provide connectivity over areas such as a city, a campus
Figure 1.10 An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub in a closet
An isolated LAN in the past and today
Figure 1.11 WANs: a switched WAN and a point-to-point WAN
Figure 1.12 A heterogeneous network made of four WANs and two LANs
1-2.1 SWITCHING
1-2.1 SWITCHING

• An internet is a switched network in which a switch

connects at least two links together. A switch needs to
forward data from a network to another network when
required.
• The two most common types of switched networks are circuit-
switched and packet-switched networks.
Circuit-Switched Network
Packet-Switched Network
 1-3 THE INTERNET

The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily

lives. It has affected the way we do business as well as the
way we spend our leisure time. The Internet is a
communication system that has brought a wealth of
information to our fingertips and organized it for our use.

Topics discussed in this section:

Organization of the Internet
Internet Service Providers (ISPs)
Accessing the Internet
Figure 1.14 Hierarchical organization of the Internet
 Accessing the Internet

• Using Telephone Networks

 Dial-up service
 DSL Service
• Using Cable Networks
• Using Wireless Networks
• Direct Connection to the Internet
 1-4 PROTOCOLS

A protocol is synonymous with rule. It consists of a set of

rules that govern data communications. It determines what
is communicated, how it is communicated and when it is
communicated. The key elements of a protocol are syntax,
semantics and timing

Topics discussed in this section:

 Syntax
 Semantics
 Timing
 Elements of a Protocol

• Syntax
– Structure or format of the data
– Indicates how to read the bits - field delineation
• Semantics
– Interprets the meaning of the bits
– Knows which fields define what action
• Timing
– When data should be sent and what
– Speed at which data should be sent or speed at which it is
being received.
 2-1 LAYERED TASKS

We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an

example, let us consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a
friend would be complex if there were no services
available from the post office.

Topics discussed in this section:

Sender, Receiver, and Carrier
Hierarchy
Figure 2.1 Tasks involved in sending a letter
A three-layer protocol
Logical connection between peer layers
 2-2 THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.

Topics discussed in this section:

Layered Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Encapsulation
Note

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.
Figure 2.2 Seven layers of the OSI model
Figure 2.3 The interaction between layers in the OSI model
Figure 2.4 An exchange using the OSI model
 2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

In this section we briefly describe the functions of each

layer in the OSI model.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer
Figure 2.5 Physical layer
Note

The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.
Figure 2.6 Data link layer
Note

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.
Figure 2.7 Hop-to-hop delivery
Figure 2.8 Network layer
Note

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
Figure 2.9 Source-to-destination delivery
Figure 2.10 Transport layer
Note

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.
Figure 2.11 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
Figure 2.12 Session layer
Note

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.
Figure 2.13 Presentation layer
Note

The presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.
Figure 2.14 Application layer
Note

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.
Figure 2.15 Summary of layers
 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly

match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP protocol
suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-network,
internet, transport, and application. However, when
TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP
protocol suite is made of five layers: physical, data link,
network, transport, and application.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical and Data Link Layers
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
Figure 2.16 TCP/IP and OSI model
 2-5 ADDRESSING

Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing

the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Addresses
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
Specific Addresses
Figure 2.17 Addresses in TCP/IP
Figure 2.18 Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP
 Example 2.1

In Figure 2.19 a node with physical address 10 sends a

frame to a node with physical address 87. The two nodes
are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the figure
shows, the computer with physical address 10 is the
sender, and the computer with physical address 87 is the
receiver.
Figure 2.19 Physical addresses
 Example 2.2

Most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical

address written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2
hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as shown
below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B

A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

 Example 2.3

Figure 2.20 shows a part of an internet with two routers

connecting three LANs. Each device (computer or router)
has a pair of addresses (logical and physical) for each
connection. In this case, each computer is connected to
only one link and therefore has only one pair of
addresses. Each router, however, is connected to three
networks (only two are shown in the figure). So each
router has three pairs of addresses, one for each
connection.
Figure 2.20 IP addresses
 Example 2.4

Figure 2.21 shows two computers communicating via the

Internet. The sending computer is running three processes
at this time with port addresses a, b, and c. The receiving
computer is running two processes at this time with port
addresses j and k. Process a in the sending computer
needs to communicate with process j in the receiving
computer. Note that although physical addresses change
from hop to hop, logical and port addresses remain the
same from the source to destination.
Figure 2.21 Port addresses
Note

The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,

but the logical addresses usually remain the same.
 Example 2.5

A port address is a 16-bit address represented by one

decimal number as shown.

753

A 16-bit port address represented

as one single number.
 3-6 PERFORMANCE
One important issue in networking is the performance of the network. In this section, we
introduce terms that we need for future chapters.

Topics discussed in this section:

 Bandwidth - capacity of the system

 Throughput - no. of bits that can be pushed through
 Latency (Delay) - delay incurred by a bit from start to finish
 Bandwidth-Delay Product
 Note

In networking, we use the term bandwidth

in two contexts.
 The first, bandwidth in hertz, refers to the range of frequencies in a
composite signal or the range of frequencies that a channel can pass.
 The second, bandwidth in bits per second, refers to the speed of bit
transmission in a channel or link. Often referred to as Capacity.
 Example 3.42

The bandwidth of a subscriber line is 4 kHz for voice or

data. The bandwidth of this line for data transmission
can be up to 56,000 bps using a sophisticated modem to
change the digital signal to analog.
 Example 3.43

If the telephone company improves the quality of the line and increases the bandwidth to
8 kHz, we can send 112,000 bps by using the same technology as mentioned in Example
3.42.
 Throughput
The throughput is a measure of how fast we can actually send
data through a network. Although, at first glance, bandwidth in
bits per second and throughput seem the same, they are different. A
link may have a bandwidth of B bps, but we can only send T bps
through this link with T always less than B. In other words, the
bandwidth is a potential measurement of a link; the throughput is
an actual measurement of how fast we can send data. For example,
we may have a link with a bandwidth of 1 Mbps, but the devices
connected to the end of the link may handle only 200 kbps. This
means that we cannot send more than 200 kbps through this link.
 Throughput
Imagine a highway designed to transmit 1000 cars
per minute from one point to another. However,
if there is congestion on the road, this figure
may be reduced to 100 cars per minute. The
bandwidth is 1000 cars per minute; the
throughput is 100 cars per minute.
 Example 3.44

A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an average of 12,000 frames per
minute with each frame carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is the throughput of this
network?

Solution
We can calculate the throughput as

The throughput is almost one-fifth of the bandwidth in this case.

 Propagation & Transmission delay

• Propagation speed - speed at which a bit

travels though the medium from source to
destination.
• Transmission speed - the speed at which all
the bits in a message arrive at the
destination. (difference in arrival time of
first and last bit)
 Propagation and Transmission Delay

• Propagation Delay = Distance/Propagation speed

• Transmission Delay = Message size/bandwidth bps

• Latency = Propagation delay + Transmission delay +

Queueing time + Processing time
 Example 3.45

What is the propagation time if the distance between the two points is 12,000 km?
Assume the propagation speed to be 2.4 × 108 m/s in cable.

Solution
We can calculate the propagation time as

The example shows that a bit can go over the Atlantic Ocean in only 50 ms if there is a
direct cable between the source and the destination.
 Example 3.46

What are the propagation time and the transmission time for a 2.5-kbyte message (an e-
mail) if the bandwidth of the network is 1 Gbps? Assume that the distance between the
sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.

Solution
We can calculate the propagation and transmission time as shown on the next slide:
 Example 3.46 (continued)

Note that in this case, because the message is short and the bandwidth is high, the
dominant factor is the propagation time, not the transmission time. The transmission
time can be ignored.
 Example 3.47

What are the propagation time and the transmission time for a 5-Mbyte message (an
image) if the bandwidth of the network is 1 Mbps? Assume that the distance between the
sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.

Solution
We can calculate the propagation and transmission times as shown on the next slide.
 Example 3.47 (continued)

Note that in this case, because the message is very long and the bandwidth is not very
high, the dominant factor is the transmission time, not the propagation time. The
propagation time can be ignored.
 Queuing Time
• The third component in latency is the queuing time,
the time needed for each intermediate or end device
to hold the message before it can be processed.
• The queuing time is not a fixed factor; it changes with
the load imposed on the network. When there is heavy
traffic on the network, the queuing time increases.
• An intermediate device, such as a router, queues the
arrived messages and processes them one by one. If
there are many messages, each message will have to
wait.
Figure 3.31 Filling the link with bits for case 1
 Example 3.48

We can think about the link between two points as a pipe. The cross section of the pipe
represents the bandwidth, and the length of the pipe represents the delay. We can say
the volume of the pipe defines the bandwidth-delay product, as shown in Figure 3.33.
Figure 3.32 Filling the link with bits in case 2
Note

The bandwidth-delay product defines the

number of bits that can fill the link.
Figure 3.33 Concept of bandwidth-delay product
 Switching : Introduction
• Switching is a topic that can be discussed at several layers.
• Switching occurs at the physical layer, at the data-link
layer, at the network layer, and even logically at the
application layer (message switching).
• General idea behind switching will be discussed in this
chapter
• Circuit-switching, which occurs at the physical layer will be
discussed.
• Idea of packet-switching, which occurs at the data-link
and network layers will also be discussed
 Switching : Introduction
• The first section introduces switching. It mentions three methods
of switching: circuit switching, packet switching, and message
switching. The section then defines the switching methods that
can occur in some layers of the Internet model.
• The second section discusses circuit-switched networks. It first
defines three phases in these types of networks. It then describes
the efficiency of these networks. The section also discusses the
delay in circuit-switched networks.
• The third section briefly discusses packet-switched networks. It
first describes datagram networks, listing their characteristics and
advantages. The section then describes virtual circuit networks,
explaining their features and operations.
Switched network
Three Methods of Switching
 CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS
A circuit-switched network consists of a set of switches
connected by physical links. A connection between two
stations is a dedicated path made of one or more links.
However, each connection uses only one dedicated
channel on each link. Each link is normally divided into
n channels by using FDM or TDM.
Topics discussed in this section:
• Three Phases
• Efficiency
• Delay
• Circuit-Switched Technology in Telephone Networks
 CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS
As a trivial example, let us use a circuit-switched
network to connect eight telephones in a small
area.Communication is through 4-kHz voice channels.
We assume that each link uses FDM to connect a
maximum of two voice channels. The bandwidth of
each link is then 8 kHz. Figure 8.4 shows the situation.
Telephone 1 is connected to telephone 7; 2 to 5; 3 to
8; and 4 to 6. Of course the situation may change
when new connections are made. The switch controls
the connections.
 CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS
The actual communication in a circuit-switched
network requires three phases:
• Connection setup,
• Data transfer, and
• Connection teardown.
 PACKET SWITCHING
In data communications, we need to send messages
from one end system to another. If the message is
going to pass through a packet-switched network,
it needs to be divided into packets of fixed or
variable size. The size of the packet is determined
by the network and the governing protocol.
• In a packet-switched network, there is no
resource reservation; resources are allocated on
demand.
Virtual-Circuit Networks
 Delay in Virtual-Circuit Networks
• Total delay = 3T + 3τ + setup delay +
teardown delay
Introduction to Data Link Layer
Nodes and Links
Services
 Services
• Hop-to Hop Communications
• Framing
• Flow Control
• Error Control
• Congestion Control
 Two Categories of Links
Point-to-point link
• In a point-to-point link, the link is dedicated to
the two
Broadcast link
• In a broadcast link, the link is shared between
several pairs of devices.
Two Sublayers
 LINK-LAYER ADDRESSING
• Link-layer address is sometimes called a link address,
sometimes a physical address, and sometimes a MAC
address.
• Since a link is controlled at the data-link layer, the
addresses need to belong to the data-link layer. When a
datagram passes from the network layer to the data-link
layer, the datagram will be encapsulated in a frame and two
data-link addresses are added to the frame header.
• These two addresses are changed every time the frame
moves from one link to another. Figure 9.5 demonstrates
the concept in a small internet.
 Three Types of addresses
Some link-layer protocols define three types of
addresses: unicast, multicast, and broadcast.
Unicast Address
• Each host or each interface of a router is
assigned a unicast address.
• Unicasting means one-to-one communication.
A frame with a unicast address destination is
destined only for one entity in the link.
 Example 9.1

• As we will see in Chapter 13, the unicast link-

layer addresses in the most common LAN,
Ethernet, are 48 bits (six bytes) that are
presented as 12 hexadecimal digits separated
by colons; for example, the following is a link-
layer address of a computer.
A3:34:45:11:92:F1
 Multicast Address

• Some link-layer protocols define multicast

addresses. Multicasting means one-to-many
communication. However, the jurisdiction is
local (inside the link).
 Example 9.2

As we will see in Chapter 13, the multicast link

layer addresses in the most common LAN,
Ethernet, are 48 bits (six bytes) that are
presented as 12 hexadecimal digits separated
by colons. The second digit, however, needs to
be an even number in hexadecimal. The
following shows a multicast address:
A2:34:45:11:92:F1
 Broadcast Address

Some link-layer protocols define a broadcast

address. Broadcasting means one-to-all
communication. A frame with a destination
broadcast address is sent to all entities in
the link.
 Example 9.3

As we will see in Chapter 13, the broadcast link

layer addresses in the most common LAN,
Ethernet, are 48 bits, all 1s, that are presented as
12 hexadecimal digits separated by colons. The
following shows a broadcast address:

FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF