• 

• 1.1. Tangents and Normals

•Example
  1.1.3.
Given , , and , what are the slopes of the lines , and ?

 Solution:  

The slope of is The slope of is

The slope of is
• 

𝑦− 𝑦0=𝑚(𝑥−𝑥0)
• 1.1. Tangents and Normals
•Example
  1.1.4.
From Example 1.1.3. above, since , then using as our point, then the
point-slope form of the equation of is
• 1.1. Tangents and Normals

• 
• 1.1. Tangents and Normals
•Example
  1.1.5.

Find the equation of the tangent line to at .

Solution:

To get the equation of the line, we need the point and the slope . We are only
given . However, the y-coordinate of is easy to find by substituting into . This gives
us . Hence, has the coordinates .
• 1.1. Tangents and Normals
•Solution:
 
Now, we look for the slope:

Finally, the equation of the tangent line with slope and passing through is
• 1.1. Tangents and Normals
•Example
  1.1.6.

Find the slope-intercept form of the tangent line to at .

Solution:

Again, we find the y-coordinate of :

• 1.1. Tangents and Normals
• 
• 1.1. Tangents and Normals
•Finally,
  with point and slope , the equation of the tangent line is
• 1.1. Tangents and Normals
• 
Example 1.1.7.
Show that the tangent line to at the point is horizontal.
 
Solution:
Recall that a horizontal line has zero slope. Now, computing for the slope, we get:
• 1.1. Tangents and Normals
•Solution:
 

Since the slope of the tangent line is , it must be horizontal. Its equation is
• 1.1. Tangents and Normals
•Example
  1.1.8.
Verify that the tangent line to the line at is the line itself.

Solution:

We first compute for the slope of the tangent line. Note that and .
• 1.1. Tangents and Normals
•Solution:
 
Therefore, substituting this into the point-slope form with and , we get

This is the same equation as that of the given line.

• 1.1. Tangents and Normals
•Example
  1.1.9.

Compute for each of the following functions:

1. 3.

2. 4.
• 1.1. Tangents and Normals
•Solution:
 
Here, is fixed to be equal to 1. Using the definition above,

Remember that what we are computing, , is just the slope of the tangent line to
at .
• 1.1. Tangents and Normals
•1. 
Note that , so by factoring,
• 1.1. Tangents and Normals
•2.   

Here, so again, by factoring,

• 1.1. Tangents and Normals
• 
3.  
We see that . So, from the definition,

 
We multiply both the numerator and the
denominator by to simplify the complex
fraction:
• 1.1. Tangents and Normals
• 
4.  
Note that . Therefore, by rationalizing the
numerator (meaning, multiplying by ),
1.2. Polynomial Curve Tracing
• 1.2. Polynomial Curve Tracing
•The
  Increasing and Decreasing Function
Let be defined on an interval and let and denote points in that interval.
 
(a) is increasing on the interval if whenever .

(b) is decreasing on the interval if whenever .

(c) is constant on the interval if for all points and .

• 1.2. Polynomial Curve Tracing
• 1.2. Polynomial Curve Tracing
•Theorem:
 
Let be a function that is continuous on a closed interval and differentiable on the open
interval .

(a) If for every value of in , then is increasing on .

(b) If for every value of in , then is decreasing on .

(c) If for every value of in , then is constant on .

• 1.2. Polynomial Curve Tracing
y y y

   




x x x
Each tangent line Each tangent line Each tangent line
has positive slope; has zero slope, has negative slope;
function is increasing function is constant function is decreasing
• 1.2. Polynomial Curve Tracing
•Example:
  Find the interval at which is increasing or decreasing at

=4;

let

; thus , y is decreasing at interval x< 2

• 1.2. Polynomial Curve Tracing
•Example:
  Find the interval at which is increasing or decreasing at

let

; thus , y is increasing at interval x > 2

Challenge:
Find the intervals on which the function is increasing/decreasing.

a.)

b.)
• 1.2. Polynomial Curve Tracing
•If   is differentiable on an open interval, then is said to be concave up on the open
interval if is increasing on that interval, and is said to be concave down on the
open interval if is decreasing on that interval.

Increasing slopes Decreasing slopes

• 1.2. Polynomial Curve Tracing
•Theorem:
 
Let be twice differentiable on an open interval.

(a) If for every value of in the open interval, then is concave up on

that interval.
(b) If for every value of in the open interval, then is concave down on
that interval.
• 1.2. Polynomial Curve Tracing
• 1.2. Polynomial Curve Tracing
•The
  First Derivative Test
Suppose that is continuous at a critical point .

(a) If on an open interval extending left from and on an open interval extending right
from , then has a relative maximum at .

(b) If on an open interval extending left from and on an open interval extending right
from , then has a relative minimum at .

(c) If has the same sign on an open interval extending left from as it does on an open
interval extending right from , then does not have a relative extremum at .
• 1.2. Polynomial Curve Tracing
•The
  Second Derivative Test
Suppose that is twice differentiable at the point .

(a) If and , then has a relative minimum at .

(b) If and , then has a relative maximum at .

(c) If and , then the test is inconclusive; that is, may have a relative maximum, a
relative minimum, or neither at .
• 1.2. Polynomial Curve Tracing
The Second Derivative Test
• 1.2. Polynomial Curve Tracing
•Consider
  an interval in the domain of a function and a point in that interval. We
say that f has an absolute maximum at if for all in the interval, and we say that
has an absolute minimum at if for all in the interval. We say that has an absolute
extremum at if it has either an absolute maximum or an absolute minimum at that
point.
• 1.2. Polynomial Curve Tracing
• 1.2. Polynomial Curve Tracing
•Example
  1.2.1. CRITICAL POINTS

Find all the critical points of the given function .

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)
• 1.2. Polynomial Curve Tracing
•Solution:
 
We differentiate and find all the values of such that becomes zero or undefined.

(a)

Note that is differentiable everywhere, so critical points will occur when is zero.
Differentiating, we get
• 1.2. Polynomial Curve Tracing
•Therefore,
 

So, is a critical point.

• 1.2. Polynomial Curve Tracing
•(b) 
.
Hence, the critical points are and .
 
(c)
.
So, the critical points are and .
 
• 1.2. Polynomial Curve Tracing
• 
 (d)
. Observe that is zero when the numerator is zero, or when . Moreover, is
undefined when the denominator is zero, i.e., when . So, the critical points are
and .
 
(e)
. Note that the domain of is ; therefore, cannot be a critical point. The only critical
point is .
• 1.2. Polynomial Curve Tracing
•Example
  1.2.2. EXTREME VALUE THEOREM
Find the extrema of the given functions on the interval . (These
functions are the same as in the previous example.)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
• 1.2. Polynomial Curve Tracing
•Solution:
 
(a)

There’s only one critical point, , and the endpoints are . We present the functional
values in a table.
-1 1/2 1
10
10 13/4
13/4 4
4
Clearly, the maximum of occurs at and has value . The minimum of occurs at and
has value .
• 1.2. Polynomial Curve Tracing
•Solution:
 
(b)
The critical points of are and , but since we limited our domain to , we are only
interested with . Below is the table of functional values at this critical point, as well
as those at the endpoints.
-1 1
-45 -13
Therefore, the maximum value occurs at while the minimum value occurs at .
• 1.2. Polynomial Curve Tracing
•Solution:
 
(c)
Considering the critical points and the endpoints, we consider the functional
values at , and :

-1 -1/3 1
-11
-11 -25/27
-25/27 -11
-11

Thus, the maximum point is while the minimum points are and .
• 1.2. Polynomial Curve Tracing
•Solution:
 
(d)

, and .

So, the maximum point is while the minimum point is .

• 1.2. Polynomial Curve Tracing
•   Theorem
Rolle’s

Let be continuous on the closed interval and differentiable on the open interval . If

Then there is at least one point in the interval such that .

• 1.2. Polynomial Curve Tracing
• 
Example 1.2.3.

Work-out a Calculus-based analysis of properties then sketch the graph of

Solution:

Step 1: If the equation is given in the form of , solve for .

• 1.2. Polynomial Curve Tracing
•   2: Determine the and intercepts.
Step
 
: (let , then solve for ) : (let , then solve for )
• 1.2. Polynomial Curve Tracing
Step 3: Determine the asymptotes if any. Also, determine the intersection of the
curve with the horizontal asymptotes. (Note: The curve may intercept the
horizontal asymptotes but not the vertical asymptotes).

There are no asymptotes since the given function is not a rational function.
• 1.2. Polynomial Curve Tracing
Step 4: Locate the critical points and determine the maxima/minima using the First Derivative Test.

 
• 1.2. Polynomial Curve Tracing
•Step
  5: Identify change in concavity (Point of Inflection) using the Second Derivative
Test.

Now we take the second derivative of the function by differentiating the first
derivative:

Since the second derivative is a constant, therefore, there is no change in concavity,

there is no point of inflection on the given function.
• 1.2. Polynomial Curve Tracing
Step 6: Trace the curve. Plot a few points if necessary.
• 1.3. Optimization Problems
(Application of Extrema to Word Problems)
•Example
  1.3.1.

Find the number in the interval so that the difference of the number from its square is maximized.

Solution:

Let be the desired number. We want to maximize

Where . Note that is continuous on and thus, we can apply the Extreme Value Theorem.
• 1.3. Optimization Problems
(Application of Extrema to Word Problems)
•Solution:
 
We first find the critical numbers of in the interval . We have

Which means that we only have one critical number in : .

Then we compare the function value at the critical number and the endpoints. We see that

From this, we conclude that attains a maximum on at the left endpoint .

Hence, the number we are looking for is .

• 1.3. Optimization Problems
(Application of Extrema to Word Problems)
•Example
  1.3.2.

The range (distance of launch site to point of impact) of a projectile that is

launched at an angle from the horizontal, and with a fixed initial speed of is given
by

where is the acceleration due to gravity. Show that this range is maximized when .
• 1.3. Optimization Problems
(Application of Extrema to Word Problems)
•Solution:
 
Let denote the range of the projectile that is launched at an angle , measured from the horizontal.
We need to maximize

where . Note that is continuous on and therefore the Extreme Value Theorem is applicable.
• 1.3. Optimization Problems
(Application of Extrema to Word Problems)
•Solution:
 
Hence, is a critical number.
Finally, we compare the functional values:

Thus, we conclude that attains its maximum at , with value .

• 1.3. Optimization Problems
(Application of Extrema to Word Problems)
Example 1.3.3.

A rectangular box is to be made from a piece of cardboard 24 cm long and 9 cm wide by cutting out identical
squares from the four corners and turning up the sides. Find the volume of the largest rectangular box that can
be formed.
• 1.3. Optimization Problems
(Application of Extrema to Word Problems)
•Solution:
 
Let be the length of the side of the squares to be cut out and imagine the “flaps” being turned up
to form the box. The length, width and height of the box would then be and , respectively.
Therefore, the volume of the box is

 
• 1.3. Optimization Problems
(Application of Extrema to Word Problems)
•Solution:
 
We wish to maximize but take note that should be nonnegative and should not be more than half
the width of the cardboard. That is, . (The case or does not produce any box because one of the
dimensions would become zero; but to make the interval closed and bounded, we can think of
those cases as degenerate boxes with zero volume). Since is just a polynomial, it is continuous on
the closed and bounded interval . Thus, the Extreme Value Theorem applies. Now
• 1.3. Optimization Problems
(Application of Extrema to Word Problems)
•Solution:
 
And hence the only critical number of in is ( is outside the interval).
 
We now compare the functional values at the endpoints and at the critical points:

0 2 4.5
0
0 200
200 0
0

Therefore, from the table, we see that attains its maximum at , and the maximum volume is equal
to .
• 1.3. Optimization Problems
(Application of Extrema to Word Problems)
•Example
  1.3.4.

Determine the dimensions of the right circular cylinder of greatest volume that can be inscribed in a
right circular cone of radius and height .
• 1.3. Optimization Problems
(Application of Extrema to Word Problems)
•Solution:
 
Let and respectively denote the height and radius of the cylinder. The volume of the cylinder is .

Looking at the central cross-section of the cylinder and the cone, we can see similar triangles, and
so

We can now write our objective function as

• 1.3. Optimization Problems
(Application of Extrema to Word Problems)
•Solution:
 
Now,

And hence, our only critical number is on . We now compare the functional values at the endpoints
and at the critical points:
0 4 6
0
0 48 0
0
We see that the volume is maximized when , with value . To find the dimensions, we solve for .
• 1.3. Optimization Problems
(Application of Extrema to Word Problems)
•Solution:
 
If ,

Therefore, the largest circular cylinder that can be inscribed in the given cone has dimensions cm
and height cm.
• 1.4. Time Rates
•Remarks:
 
Let be a differentiable function which represents a quantity that changes with time , then

is rate of change of with respect to ;

is positive if and only if increases with time; and

is negative if and only if decreases with time.

The unit of measurement of is .

• 1.4. Time Rates
•Example
  1.4.1.
A water droplet falls onto a still pond and creates concentric circular
ripples that propagate away from the center. Assuming that the area of
a ripple is increasing at the rate of , find the rate at which the radius is
increasing at the instant when the radius is .
• 1.4. Time Rates
•Solution:
 
We solve this step-by-step using the above guidelines.

Step 1: If possible, provide an illustration for the problem that is valid for any time .
• 1.4. Time Rates
•Solution:
 
Step 2: Identify those quantities that change with respect to time and represent
them with variables. (Avoid assigning variable to quantities which are constant, that
is, which do not change with respect to time. Label them right away with the values
provided in the problem.)
 Let and be the radius and area, respectively, of a circular ripple at any time .
• 1.4. Time Rates
•Solution:
 
Step 3: Write down any numerical facts known about the variable. Interpret each
rate of change as the derivative of a variable with respect to time. Remember that
if a quantity decreases over time, then its rate of change is negative.
 The given rate of change is
• 1.4. Time Rates
•Solution:
 
Step 4: Identify which rate of change is being asked, and under what conditions
this rate is being computed.
 We are asked to find at the instant when .
• 1.4. Time Rates
•Solution:
 
Step 5: Write an equation showing the relationship of all the variables by an
equation that is valid for any time .
 The relationship between and is given by the formula for the area of a circle:
• 1.4. Time Rates
•Solution:
 
Step 6: Differentiate the equation in step 5 implicitly with respect to .
We now differentiate implicitly with respect to time. (Be mindful that all quantities
here depend on time, so we should always apply Chain Rule.)
• 1.4. Time Rates
•Solution:
 
Step 7: Substitute into the equation, obtained in step 6, all values that are valid at
the time of interest. Sometimes, some quantities still need to be solved by
substituting the conditions written in step 4 to the equation in step 6. Then, solve
for what is being asked in the problem.
Substituting and gives
• 1.4. Time Rates
•Solution:
 
Step 8: Write a conclusion that answer the question of the problem. Do not forget
to include the correct units of measurement.
 Conclusion: The radius of a circular ripple is increasing at the rate of .
• 1.4. Time Rates
•Example
  1.4.2.

A ladder meters long is leaning against a wall. If the bottom of the ladder is being
pushed horizontally towards the wall at , how fast is the top of the ladder moving
when the bottom is from the wall?
• 1.4. Time Rates
Solution:

We first illustrate the problem.

 Let be the distance between the bottom
of the ladder and the wall. Let be the
distance between the top of the ladder
and the ground (as shown on the figure).
Note that the length of the ladder is not
represented by a variable as it is constant.
• 1.4. Time Rates
•Solution:
 
We are given that . (Observe that this rate is negative since the quantity decreases with time.)

We want to find at the instant when .

Observe that the wall, the ground, and the ladder determine a right triangle. Hence, the
relationship between and is given by the Pythagorean Theorem:
• 1.4. Time Rates
•Solution:
 
Differentiating both sides with respect to time gives

Before we proceed to the next step, we ask ourselves if we already have everything we need.
So, is given, is the quantity required, is given, BUT, we still do not have .
This is easy to solve by substituting the given condition into the equation .
So,
• 1.4. Time Rates
•Solution:
 
Finally, we substitute all the given values into the equation :
   

Thus, the distance between the top of the ladder

and the ground is increasing at the rate of .
Equivalently, we can also say that the top of the
ladder is moving at the rate of .
• 1.4. Time Rates
•Example
  1.4.3.

An automobile travelling at the rate of is approaching an intersection. When the

automobile is from the intersection, a truck travelling at the rate of crosses the
intersection. The automobile and the truck are on perpendicular roads. How fast is
the distance between the truck and the automobile changing two seconds after the
truck leaves the intersection?
• 1.4. Time Rates
Solution:

Let us assume that the automobile is travelling west while the truck is travelling south as illustrated
below:

 Let denote the distance of the

automobile from the intersection,
denote the distance of the truck from
the intersection, and denote the
distance between the truck and the
automobile.
• 1.4. Time Rates
•Solution:
 
Then, we have (the negative rate is due to the fact that decreases with time) and . We want to find
when .

The equation relating , , and is given by the Pythagorean Theorem. We have

• 1.4. Time Rates
•Solution:
 
Differentiating both sides with respect to ,
• 1.4. Time Rates
•Solution:
 
Before substituting the given values, we still need to find the values of , , and when . This is found
by the distance-rate-time relationship:

For the automobile, after , it has travelled a distance equal to from the mark. Therefore, . On the
other hand, for the truck, it has travelled . The value of is found when we substitute the value of
and to the equation .
• 1.4. Time Rates
•Solution:
 
Finally,
 

Thus, the distance between the automobile and

the truck is increasing at the rate of meters per
second.
• 1.4. Time Rates
•Example
  1.4.4.

Water is pouring into an inverted cone at the rate of . If the height of the cone is
and the radius of its base is , how fast is the water level rising when the water is
deep?
• 1.4. Time Rates
Solution:

We first illustrate the problem.

 Let be the volume of the water inside
the cone at any time . Let , be the
height and radius, respectively, of the
cone formed by the volume of water
at any time .
We are given and we wish to find
when .
• 1.4. Time Rates
•Solution:
 
Now, the relationship between the three defined variables is given by the volume of the cone:

Observe that the rate of change or is neither given nor asked. This prompts us to find a relationship
between and . From the illustration, we see that the proportionality relations in similar triangles,
we obtain
• 1.4. Time Rates
•Solution:
 
or . Thus,

Differentiating both sides with respect to ,

• 1.4. Time Rates
•Solution:
 
Thus, after substituting all given values, we obtain

 
Finally, we conclude that the water level inside the cone is rising at the rate of .
• 2.1. The Antiderivative of a Function (Indefinite
Integrals)
•We  will now give examples of antiderivatives of functions.
Example 2.1.1.

(a) An antiderivative of is . As we can see, the derivative of is given by .

(b) An antiderivative of is because .

Remarks: The antiderivative of a function is not unique.

• 2.1. The Antiderivative of a Function (Indefinite
Integrals)
•Example
  2.1.2.

(a) Other antiderivative of are and . In fact, any function of the form , where is an
antiderivative of . Observe that .

(b) Other antiderivatives of are and . In fact, any function , where is an

antiderivative of .