Remote Sensing: An

Introduction

Dr Pervez Ahmed
Dept. of Geography and Regional Development
University of Kashmir
Email: [email protected]
Geography (from Greek geographia,
literally "earth description") is a field of 
science devoted to the study of the lands,
the features, the inhabitants, and the
phenomena of Earth.
The first person to use the word was 
Eratosthenes (276–194 BC). Geography is
an all-encompassing discipline that seeks
an understanding of the Earth and its
human and natural complexities—not
merely where objects are, but how they
have changed and come to be.
Introduction to Remote Sensing
Remote sensing is "the examination,
measurement, and analysis of an object
without being in contact with it".
 Goal: To obtain the most accurate
measurement using the most appropriate
sensor on the most practical platform.
 
 Remote sensing is "the science and art of
obtaining information about an object, area,
or phenomenon through the analysis of data
acquired by a device not in contact with the
object, area, or phenomenon in question.
This is done by sensing and recording the
reflected or emitted energy and processing,
analyzing, and applying that information ".
 
Some Remote Sensors
 Remote Sensing: examples

•Platform depends on application

• What information do we want?
• How much detail?
• What type of detail?
• How frequent?
 Remote Sensing Process Components

Energy Source or Illumination (A)

Radiation and the Atmosphere (B)

Interaction with the Target (C)

Recording of Energy by the

Sensor (D)

Transmission, Reception, and

Processing (E)

Source: Canadian Centre for Remote Sensing

Interpretation and Analysis (F)

Application (G)
 Remote Sensing Process Transmission, Reception,
(A) Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D)  and Processing (E) 
Energy
Source or
Illumination

Interpretation
Radiation and the
and Analysis (F)
Atmosphere (B) 

Application (G) 
 Interaction with the Target (C) 

Reference:
8
CCRS/CCT
 Remote Sensing Process
(A) Transmission, Reception,
Energy Source or Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D)  and Processing (E) 
Illumination

Interpretation
(B) and Analysis (F)
Radiation and the
Atmosphere

Application (G) 
 Interaction with the Target (C) 

Reference:
9
CCRS/CCT
 Remote Sensing Process
(A) Transmission, Reception,
Energy Source or Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D)  and Processing (E) 
Illumination

Interpretation
(B)
and Analysis (F)
Radiation and the
Atmosphere

(C)
Application (G) 
 Interaction with the
Target  

Reference:
CCRS/CCT
 Remote Sensing Process
(A) Transmission, Reception,
Energy Source or and Processing (E) 
Illumination (D)
Recording of Energy
by the Sensor 

Interpretation
(B)
and Analysis (F)
Radiation and the
Atmosphere

(C)
 Interaction with the Target   Application (G) 

Reference:
11
CCRS/CCT
 Remote Sensing Process
(A)
Energy Source or (D)
Illumination Recording of Energy by the Sensor 

Interpretation
(B)
and Analysis (F)
Radiation and the (E)
Atmosphere
Transmission,
Reception, and
Processing

(C)
 Interaction with the Target   Application (G) 

Reference:
12
CCRS/CCT
 Remote Sensing Process
(A)
Energy Source or (D)
Illumination Recording of Energy by the Sensor  (E)
Transmission, Reception,
and Processing

Interpretation
(B)
Radiation and the (F)
and Analysis (F)
Atmosphere Interpretation and
Analysis

(C)
 Interaction with the Target  

Reference:
13
CCRS/CCT
 Remote Sensing Process
Energy Source or
Illumination (A) Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D) 

Transmission, Reception,
and Processing (E) 

Interpretation
Radiation and the
and Analysis (F)
Atmosphere (B) 

(G)
 Interaction with the Target (C) 
Application

Reference:
14
CCRS/CCT
 Common types of orbits
Geostationary Polar

Polar orbiting orbit

Geostationary orbit fixed circular orbit
An orbit that has the same above the earth, ~600-
Earth’s rotational period 1000km in sun
Appears ‘fixed’ above earth synchronous orbit with
Satellite on equator at orbital pass at about
~36,000km same local solar time
each day
19
 Ascending
vs
Descending

Polar Orbits
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION AND THE ELECTROMAGNETIC
SPECTRUM

EMR is a dynamic form of energy that propagates as wave

motion at a velocity of c = 3 x 108 cm/sec. The parameters
that characterize a wave motion are wavelength (λ), frequency
(ν) and velocity (c) (Fig. 2). The relationship between the above
is
c = νλ.

Electromagnetic energy radiates in accordance with the basic wave

theory.
It suggests that EMR is composed of many discrete units called
photons/quanta. The energy of photon is
Q = hc / λ = h ν
Where
Q is the energy of quantum,
h = Planck’s constant

Electromagnetic Spectrum
Electromagnetic Spectrum
 EM Radiation
 Emitted, Scattered or Absorbed
 Intrinsic Properties (emission,
scattering, absorption)
◦ vary with wavelength
◦ vary with physical / chemical
properties
◦ can vary with viewing angle

Principles of Remote Sensing

Detection and discrimination of objects or surface features means

detecting and recording of radiant energy reflected or emitted by
objects or surface material. Different objects return different
amount and kind of energy in different bands of the electromagnetic
spectrum, incident upon it. This unique property depends on the
property of material and is known as spectral signature.
Signature Spectra
Reflectance (%)

Wavelength µm
 Energy Interactions

When EM energy is incident on any given earth

surface feature, three fundamental energy
interactions are possible. A fraction of incident
energy is reflected, absorbed and / or transmitted.

“Energy is neither created nor destroyed.”

Incident energy = reflected energy

+
transmitted energy
+
absorbed energy
 Energy Interactions with Terrain

• Light can either

be reflected,
absorbed or
transmitted.
• Most sensors
record the
reflected light.
 Thermal Radiation

Any object above absolute zero, emits EMR.

Objects around us and we ourselves are thermal
radiators.
Ideal thermal radiator – Black body.
A black body is an ideal surface such that
•Its emissivity is equal to 1. In other words it
radiates the entire energy whatever it absorbed.
•For a given temp and wavelength, no body can
emit more energy than a black body.
• Emission from a black body is independent of
direction, i.e. it is a diffuse emitter.
Emission is according to the Planck’s law

Planck's Law allows us to calculate total energy

radiated in all directions from a blackbody
(radiator) for a particular temperature and
wavelength.
 RADIATION LAWS

1. Stefan-Boltzmann Law

The total energy radiated by an object at a particular

temperature is given by

The higher the temperature of the radiator, the

greater the total amount of radiation it emits
Spectral distribution of energy radiated by blackbodies at various
temperatures
A blackbody is a perfect emitter and absorber of EM
radiation.
Two laws explaining the emission characteristics of the
body are:
(a) Wein’s law
(b) Rayleigh-Jeans law

Wein’s Law

This law holds good for high frequencies

Gives the wavelength at which the exitance is maximum and
is related to temperature.
 GRAY BODY

A graybody is one for which emissivity value is constant

but less than unity.
A selective radiator is one for which emissivity value
varies with wavelength.

Radiant exitances for a blackbody, graybody and a selective radiator

 Rayleigh-Jeans law

This law explains blackbody emission at high wavelengths

Particle Theory
The particle theory suggests that electromagnetic
radiation is composed of many discrete packets of
energy called “Photons” or “Quanta”.
The energy of each quantum is given by
Q = hν
where Q is energy of quantum (J), h is Planck’s
constant (6.626 x 10-34 J-s) and ν is frequency
Also, Q = hc/λ,implies the longer the wavelength
involved, the lower its energy content.
 Reflectance
•When EMR hits target (surface)
•Range of surface reflectance behaviour
• perfect specular (mirror-like) - incidence angle = exitance angle
• perfectly diffuse (Lambertian) - same reflectance in all
directions independent of illumination angle)

Natural
surfaces
somewhere in
between
 Reflection by Earthly Object’s
 What a sensor ‘sees’ depends on what
happens when the suns energy hits it.
 Specular vs diffuse reflection (usually
objects are neither one or the other)
 Also ‘smooth and specular depends on the
wavelength.
Reflectance differs by wavelength

Green Reflectance NIR Reflectance

© Space Imaging © Space Imaging

Spectral reflectance, [ρ(λ)], is the ratio of reflected
energy to incident energy as a function of wavelength.
Various materials of the earth’s surface have different
spectral reflectance characteristics. Spectral
reflectance is responsible for the color or tone in a
photographic image of an object.

The spectral reflectance is dependent on wavelength, it

has different values at different wavelengths for a
given terrain feature. The reflectance characteristics
of the earth’s surface features are expressed by
spectral reflectance,
which is given by:
The plot between ρ(λ) and λ is called a spectral
reflectance curve. This varies with the variation in the
chemical composition and physical conditions of the
feature, which results in a range of values.
 Absorption
 Absorption is the process by which radiant
energy is absorbed and converted into other
forms of energy.
 the atmosphere does not absorb all of the

incident energy but transmits it effectively.

Parts of the spectrum that transmit energy
effectively are called “atmospheric windows”.
 Mainly three gases are responsible for most

of absorption of solar radiation, viz. ozone,

carbon dioxide and water vapour.
Absorption of the Sun’s Incident Electromagnetic Energy in
the Region from 0.1 to 30 µm by Various Atmospheric
Gases

window
 Atmospheric Windows
The atmosphere selectively transmits energy of certain
wavelengths. The spectral bands for which the atmosphere is
relatively transparent are known as atmospheric windows.
Atmospheric windows are present in the visible part and the
infrared regions of the EM spectrum.
 INTERACTIONS WITH THE ATMOSPHERE

The sun is the source of radiation, and electromagnetic

radiation (EMR) from the sun that is reflected by the earth
and detected by the satellite or aircraft-borne sensor must
pass through the atmosphere twice, once on its journey from
the sun to the earth and second after being reflected by
the surface of the earth back to the sensor. Interactions of
the direct solar radiation and reflected radiation from the
target with the atmospheric constituents interfere with the
process of remote sensing and are called as “Atmospheric
Effects”.

The interaction of EMR with the atmosphere is important to

remote sensing for two main reasons. First, information
carried by EMR reflected/ emitted by the earth’s surface is
modified while traversing through the atmosphere. Second,
the interaction of EMR with the atmosphere can be used to
 INTERACTIONS WITH THE ATMOSPHERE

The atmospheric constituents scatter and absorb

the radiation modulating the radiation reflected
from the target by attenuating it, changing its
spatial distribution and introducing into field of
view radiation from sunlight scattered in the
atmosphere and some of the energy reflected
from nearby ground area. Both scattering and
absorption vary in their effect from one part of
the spectrum to the other.

The solar energy is subjected to modification by

several physical processes as it passes the
atmosphere, viz.

1) Scattering; 2) Absorption, and 3) Reflection

 Atmospheric Scattering

Scattering is the redirection of EMR by

particles suspended in the atmosphere
or by large molecules of atmospheric
gases.
It only reduces the image contrast but
also changes the spectral depends upon
• the size of the particles,
• their abundance,
• the wavelength of radiation,
• depth of the atmosphere and
the concentration of the particles.

Theoretically scattering can be divided

into three categories depending upon
the wavelength of radiation being
scattered and the size of the particles
causing the scattering.
 Rayleigh Scattering

Rayleigh scattering predominates where electromagnetic

radiation interacts with particles that are smaller than
the wavelength of the incoming light.
The effect of the Rayleigh scattering is inversely
proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength.
Shorter wavelengths are scattered more than longer
wavelengths. In the absence of these particles and
scattering the sky would appear black.
In the context of remote sensing, the Rayleigh
scattering is the most important type of scattering.
It causes a distortion of spectral characteristics of the
reflected light when compared to measurements taken
on the ground.
 Non selective
Scattering
by cloud

Mie Scattering
 Mie Scattering

• The wavelength of the incoming radiation is similar in

size to the atmospheric particles. These are caused
by aerosols.
• Generally restricted to the lower atmosphere where
the larger particles are abundant and dominates under
overcast cloud conditions.
• It influences the entire spectral region from ultra
violet to near infrared regions.
Non-selective Scattering
• The particle size is much larger than the wavelength
of the incoming radiation.
• Caused by water droplets and larger dust particles.
• Independent of the wavelength, all the wavelength
are scattered equally. The most common example of
non selective scattering is the appearance of clouds as
 Fundamental terms

Resolution
 All remote sensing systems have four types
of resolution:

◦ Spatial

◦ Spectral

◦ Temporal

◦ Radiometric
 1. Spatial Resolution
 Satellite sensors store information about
objects as a grid. Digital data is collected
from the area covered in the form of
individual image points, so called pixels. A
pixel is the smallest area unit in a digital
image.

 The earth surface area covered by a pixel of

an image is known as spatial resolution

 Large area covered by a pixel means low

spatial resolution and vice versa
 Spatial Resolution
• Low resolution:
larger than 30 m
(METOSAT)
•Medium
resolution: 2 - 30
m
(LANDSAT 7)
• High resolution:
under 2 m
(IKONOS,
QUICKBIRD,
CAARTOSAT)

Source: Jensen (2000)

AVHRR (Advanced Very High
Resolution Radiometer) NASA- 1100m
GOES (Geostationary Operational
Environmental Satellites) IR 4- 700m
MODIS (250 m)
Landsat TM
(False Color Composite) 30m
SPOT (2.5 m)
Quickbird & Digitalglobe (0.6 , 0.4 m)
IKONOS (4 m Multispectral)
IKONOS (1 m Panchromatic)

Remote Sensing & GIS Applications Directorate

2. Spectral Resolution
 Is the ability to resolve spectral features and
bands into their separate components.

 Spectral resolution is defined through the

number of spectral bands and their width.
Their purpose is to capture the differences in
the reflection characteristics of different
surfaces.

 More number of bands in a specified bandwidth

means higher spectral resolution and vice
versa.
Spectral Resolution
 Wavelength Ranges

Optical Infrared (OIR) Region

Visible 0.4 – 0.7 μm
Near Infrared (NIR) 0.7 – 1.5 μm
Shortwave Infrared (SWIR) 1.5 – 3 μm
Mid-wave Infrared (MWIR) 3 – 8 μm
Long wave Infrared (Thermal Infrared (TIR)) 8 – 15 μm
Far Infrared (FIR) - Beyond 15 μm

Microwaves
P band 0.3 – 1 GHz (30 – 100 cm)
L band 1 – 2 GHz (15 – 30 cm)
S band 2 – 4 GHz (7.5 – 15 cm)
C band 4 – 8 GHz (3.8 – 7.5 cm)
X band 8 – 12.5 GHz (2.4 – 3.8 cm)
Ku band 12.5 – 18 GHz (1.7 – 2.4 cm)
K band 18 – 26.5 GHz (1.1 – 1.7 cm)
Ka band 26.5 – 40 GHz (0.75 – 1.1 cm)
3. Temporal Resolution
 Frequency at which images are recorded/
captured in a specific place on the earth.
 The temporal resolution is given as the time
interval between two identical flights over the
same area, also called repetition rate.
 Temporal resolution is determined by altitude
and orbit of the satellite as well as its sensor
characteristics (viewing angle).
 The more frequently it is captured, the better
or finer the temporal resolution is said to be.
Temporal Resolution
 The repetition rate and the temporal
resolution of earth observing satellites is 14-
16 days
 IKONOS: 14 days,
 LANDSAT 7: 16 days,
 SPOT: 26 days.
 Meteorological satellites such as METEOSAT

8 with 15 min have extremely shorter

repetition rates.
Temporal Resolution
(Illustration LANDSAT)
4. Radiometric Resolution
 The radiometric resolution specifies how well
the differences in brightness in an image can
be perceived; this is measured through the
number of the grey value levels. The maximum
number of values is defined by the number of
bits (binary numbers). An 8 bit representation
has 256 grey values, a 16 bit (ERS satellites)
representation 65536 grey values.
 Radiometric Resolution

2-bit range
0 4

6-bit range
0 63

8-bit range
0 255

10-bit range
0 1023
RADIOMETRIC RESOLUTION
Radiometric resolution depends on the wavelengths and the type
of the spectrometer:

•LANDSAT-MSS (from LANDSAT 1-3): 6 bits (64 grey values)

•IRS-LISS I-III: 7 bits (128 grey values)

•LANDSAT-TM (from LANDSAT 4-5) & SPOT-HRV: 8 bits (256

grey values)

•LANDSAT-ETM & ETM+ (from LANDSAT 6-7): 9 bits (only 8 bits

are transmitted)

•IRS-LISS IV: 10 bits (only 7 bits are transmitted)

•IKONOS & QuickBird: 11 bits.

 Display of RS data
• Grayscale image: One band, with each
pixel represented by a grayscale value
• Multispectral Display
– Combining 3 bands, assigned to the three color channels
(red, green, blue).
• True color composite: Colors in the image
roughly correspond with the colors in the real
world
• False color composite: Showing colors that
don’t really exist in that location.
• Key: Showing best contrast between feature
classes that may be indistinguishable to the
human eye.
Display of Single Band

• Three bands, green, red and near infra-red displayed separately as

grayscale

Near-
infra
red

green

red

©2007 Austin Troy

 Multispectral Display

Band Composite Output =

Color Guns =

Band Combination = 7 4 2 (LANDSAT)

BLUE GREEN RED NEAR IR SHORT MID- LONGWAVE IR

BLUE GREEN RED WAVE IR WAVE IR

Landsat TM Band 1 2 3 4 5 7 6
Source: Jarlath O’Neil-Dunne
 Display of Multispectral Image
• True color composite (Natural color
composite)
Applied to
Bands
color Resulting
Image
Red

Green

Blue
 Display of Multispectral Image

• False color composite

Applied to
Bands Resulting
color
Image

Near
Infrared

Red

Green
 TYPES OF REMOTE SENSING

REMOTE SENSING

Thermal Hyper Spectral

Multi Spectral Microwave LiDAR, SONAR

 Types of Remote Sensing
• Based on Source of energy

The sun provides a very convenient source of energy

for remote sensing. The sun’s energy is either
reflected, as it is for visible wavelength or absorbed
and then reemitted (for thermal infrared
wavelength).

a. Remote sensing systems, which measure this

naturally available energy, are called passive sensors.
This can only take place when the sun is illuminating
the earth. There is no reflected energy available
from the sun at night. Energy that is naturally
emitted can be detected day and night provided that
the amount of energy is large enough to be recorded.
b. Remote sensing systems, which provide their own
source of energy for illumination, are known as active
sensors. These sensors have the advantage of obtaining
data any time of day or season. Solar energy and radiant
heat are examples of passive energy sources. Synthetic
Aperture Radar (SAR) is an example of active sensor.

• Based on Range of Electromagnetic Spectrum

a. Optical Remote Sensing

The optical remote sensing devices operate in the visible,

near infrared, middle infrared and short wave infrared
portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. These devices
are sensitive to the wavelengths ranging from 300 nm to
3000 nm. Most of the remote sensors record the EMR in
this range, e.g., bands of IRS P6 LISS IV sensor are in
Multi Spectral Remote Sensing
 Multispectral remote sensing is defined as the
collection of reflected, emitted, or backscattered
energy from an object or area of interest in
multiple bands of electromagnetic spectrum; while
Hyper spectral remote sensing involves data
collection in hundreds of bands.
 Instead of cameras and 1 or 4 bands for
photogrammetry, Remote sensing use detectors
that are sensitive to hundreds of bands in the
electromagnetic spectrum. Measurements made by
detectors are always stored in a digital format.
b. Thermal Remote Sensing

The sensors, which operate in thermal range of

electromagnetic spectrum record, the energy emitted
from the earth features in the wavelength range of 3000
nm to 5000 nm and 8000 nm to 14000 nm.

The previous range is related to high temperature

phenomenon like forest fire, and later with the general
earth features having lower temperatures. Hence thermal
remote sensing is very useful for fire detection and
thermal pollution. e.g., the last five bands of ASTER and
band 6 of Landsat ETM+ operates in thermal range.
Hyper spectral Sensing
 Hyper spectral remote sensing allows a sensor on a
moving platform to gather emitted radiation from the
Earth’s surface
 This special detector system records hundreds of
spectral bands of relatively narrow bandwidths (5-10
nm) simultaneously
 With such detail, the ability to detect and identify
unique trends in land and atmospheric data sets is
greatly improved
 Currently, there is only one such satellite in the U.S.
fleet (NASA’s Earth Observer-1)
◦ Experimental
◦ Proved hyper spectral sensor technology

94
Basic concepts
 Reflectance solar electromagnetic energy from
the Earth surface is dispersed in a
spectrometer.
 Hyper spectral remote sensing refers to the
use of many narrow, continuous spectral bands
(2-10 nm) that can cover 200-2450nm.
 The technique allows us to identify the
diagnostic narrow band spectral features.
 Diagnostic spectral features in most terrestrial
materials are typical 20-40 nm in width (Hunt,
1980).
 Hyper spectral remote sensing will be
very useful for assessment of various
Earth system processes, including:
◦ Hydrological processes, e.g., water vapor,
◦ Biogeochemical processes, e.g., land
ecosystems, and
◦ Atmospheric processes, e.g., aerosols
detection.
Hyper Spectral Imaging Satellite
 Rather than gaining radiance data in only a few bands,
this satellite would be able to give spectral emissivity
data in hundreds of bands.
◦ Allows for far more specific analysis of land cover
◦ The emissivity levels of each band can be combined to form a
spectral reflectance curve
 Additionally, this sensor would cover all of the useful
spectral bands
◦ Visible – imagery, vegetation, chlorophyll, sediments
◦ Near Infrared - atmospheric properties, cloud cover,
vegetation land cover transformation
◦ Thermal Infrared – Sea surface temperature, forest fires,
volcanoes, cloud height, total ozone

97
Microwave Remote Sensing
c. Microwave Remote Sensing

A microwave remote sensor records the backscattered

microwaves in the wavelength range of 1 mm to 1 m of
electromagnetic spectrum. Most of the microwave
sensors are active sensors, having there own sources
of energy, e.g, RADARSAT, RISAT etc.

These sensors have edge over other type of sensors,

as these are independent of weather and solar
radiations.
Microwave Remote Sensing: Principles and
Applications.

 Advantages
◦ Day/night coverage.
◦ All weather except during
periods of heavy rain.
◦ Complementary
information to that in
optical and IR regions.
 Disadvantages
◦ Data are difficult to
interpret.
◦ Coarse resolution except
for SAR.

11/18/02 University of Kansas

 Image Formation: RADAR

 Real Aperture Radar

– microwave
– energy emitted across-track
– return time measured (slant range)
– amount of energy (scattering)
 Synthetic Aperture Radar

– microwave
– higher resolution - extended antenna simulated
by forward motion of platform
– ERS-1, -2 SAR (AMI), Radarsat SAR, JERS SAR

10
2
LiDAR: What and Why?
 LiDAR stands for Light Detection and
Ranging, commonly known as Laser Radar
 LiDAR is not only replacing conventional
sensors, but also creating new methods with
unique properties that could not be achieved
before
 Discrete LiDAR
LiDAR: How?
 Each time the laser is pulsed:
◦ Laser generates an optical pulse
◦ Pulse is reflected off an object and returns
to the system receiver
◦ High-speed counter measures the time of
flight from the start pulse to the return pulse
◦ Time measurement is converted to a distance
(the distance to the target and the
position of the airplane is then used to determine
the elevation and location)
◦ Multiple returns can be measured for each
pulse
 Up to 200,000+ pulses/second
 Everything that can be seen from the aircraft
is measured
Advantages of LiDAR Technology
 Provides a highly accurate means of elevation
model collection for 1’ or 2’ contours
 Acquisition can take place day or night…
shadows that are problematic in mountainous
areas are not an issue with LiDAR
 Unlike photography, acquisition can take place
below cloud cover… cloud shadows no issue
 Very cost effective for larger projects
 Does not provide break lines, nor is it imagery
LIDAR Applications
 LIDAR has significant fixed cost… but can
be very cost effective for large projects
 Appropriate for a wide range of projects

including forestry, corridor studies,

obstruction mapping, flood studies,
city/county mapping, and transportation
projects
 Required accuracy must be carefully

evaluated
LiDAR Data Characteristics

 Raw return data are XYZ points

 High spatial resolution
◦ Laser footprint on ground ≤ 0.50 meters
◦ Typical density is 0.5 to 20+ pulses/m2
◦ 2 to3 returns/pulse in forest areas
◦ Surface/canopy models typically 1 to 5m grid
 Large volume of data
◦ 5,000 to 60,000+ pulses/hectare
◦ 10 to100+ thousands of returns/hectare
◦ 0.4 to 5.4+ MB/hectare
What are some of the LIDAR data products available?
Digital Ortho-Rectified Imagery
Some LiDAR providers collect digital color or black-and-white ortho-
rectified imagery simultaneously with the collection of point data.
Imagery is collected either from digital cameras or digital video cameras
and can be mosaiced. Resolution is typically 1m.
Intensity Return Images
Images may be derived from intensity values returned by each laser
pulse. The intensity values can be displayed as a gray scale image.
LIDAR Derived Products
Topographic LiDAR systems produce surface elevation x, y, z coordinate
data points. There are many products that can be derived from raw point
data. Most LiDAR providers can derive these products upon request:
◦ Digital Elevation Models (DEMs)
◦ Digital Terrain Models (DTMs) (bald-earth elevation data)
◦ Triangulated Irregular Networks (TINs)
◦ Breaklines - a line representing a feature that you wish to preserve in
a TIN (example: stream or ridge)
◦ Contours
◦ Shaded Relief
◦ Slope & Aspect
THANK YOU