Digital Telecommunications Instructor: MR Nasolwa Edson Room: AB14 (Ground Floor)

Digital Telecommunications
Instructor : Mr Nasolwa Edson

Room: AB14 (Ground floor)
Email: [email protected]
COURSE OBJECTIVES
•To provide understanding of digital transmission
techniques and working principles of Digital
communication systems
•To provide understanding of different modulation
techniques
•Introduction to analogy digitization using PCM,
maximum likelihood design, digital modulation and
demodulation techniques
•To determine performance of digital communication
systems using Error probability
COURSE OUTLINES
Digital transmission of analogue signals:
Sampling theory, spectrum of a chopper sampler, sampling theorem, ideal
Sampling and reconstruction, practical sampling and aliasing. PAM, TDM,
Bandwidth requirements for TDM, cross talk and guard times, comparison
of
TDM and FDM. PCM generation and reconstruction, Quantizing,
Quantization noise, companding, encoding, bandwidth requirements of PCM
COURSE OUTLINES
Baseband Digital Transmission: Duobinary coding. Digital PAM
Signal, Signaling formats; unipolar and bipolar (NRZ) signaling, Bipolar and
unipolar (RZ) signaling, AMI RZ, Manchester signaling. Transmission
Limitations, Intersymbol interference (ISI). Relationship between bandwidth
and signaling rate, Power spectra of digital PAM, Binary signal detection:
Probability of error, maximum likelihood detector, probability of error with
Gaussian noise, decision thresholds. Regeneration.
COURSE OUTLINES
Digital carrier modulation systems:
Spectral analysis of bandpass digital signals, ASK, FSK, PSK, BPSK, QPSK,
Modulation techniques. Continuous-phase FSK (CPFSK), minimum-shift
Keying. Coherent Binary systems, optimum Binary detection, coherent 00K,
PRK and FSK, timing and synchronization.
PREREQUISITES
Digital Electronics I
Knowledge of MATLAB programming
Analog Telecommunications
Probability and Random process
Key References/Textbooks
1. B. Sklar, (2001) “Digital Communication:
Fundamentals and Applications", Prentice Hall, 2nd Edition
2. J. G. Proakis, (2000) “Digital Communication”,
McGraw Hill 4th Edition
3. B.P Lathi, (2006) “Modern Digital and Analogy
Communication Systems”, Oxford University Press, 3rd
Edition.
4. Leon W. Couch, (2006) “Digital and Analogy
Communication Systems”, Discovery Press, 7th Edition
5. M.S. Roden, (2003) “Analogy and Communication
Systems” Discovery Press, 5th Edition
Modes of Delivering
Lectures: Wednesday
1000hrs-1200hrs (LRB 004D)
Tutorials: Friday
1700hrs-1800hrs (FL 2)
Practical:
1000hrs-1200hrs (N)
Assessments
Course Work (40%)
Two Tests (25%)
Assignments (5%)
Practical (5%)
Quizzes (5%)
Final Examination (60%)
UNIT 1
DIGITAL TRANSMISSION OF ANALOGY
SIGNALS
Introduction to Digital Communications
 What is Telecommunication/Communication?
 What do we mean by Digital Communication?
 Main purpose of communication is to transfer information from a

source to a recipient via a channel or medium.
 Basic block diagram of a communication system:

 Block diagram of digital communication system.

Why Digital Communication?
•Control Quality :immune to channel noise and distortion this is done by
appropriately regenerative repeaters
•New and enhanced services: internet services such as web browsing, e-
mailing, texting, e-commerce and streaming
• Design efficiency: power, bandwidth, performance and complexity of the
digital circuits.
•Versatile hardware: greater dynamic range, digital circuits are less
sensitive to physical effects.
•Easier and more efficient to multiplex digital signals.
•Improved security: digital encryption unlike analogy encryption can make
the transmitted information virtually impossible to decipher.
Disadvantages of Digital Communication
•Signal processing intensive: digital communication systems require a very
high degree of signal processing (source coding, channel coding and
modulation).
•Additional bandwidth: digital communication systems generally
Signals, Systems and Spectral Analysis
Introduction
 What is a signal?
 What is the System?
x(t) y(t)
SYSTEM(S)
 How do you identify the bandwidth (spectrum) of the signal?
,
Basic operations on signals: Operations performed on dependent
variables
 Amplitude-scaling operations
y (t )  kg (t )
 Addition operations
y (t )  g1 (t )  g 2 (t )
 Multiplication operations
y (t )  g1 (t ) g 2 (t )
 Differentiation operations
, y (t ) 
d
dt
g (t )  g ' (t )
 Integration operations
y (t )   g (t )d (t )
Operations performed on independent variables
Time-reversed operations
y (t )  g ( t )
 Time-shifting operations
y (t )  g (t   )
 Time-scaling operations
y (t )  g (  t )
It is very possible that the combinations of the operations to occur at the same
time
,
Classification of Signals
Representation and processing of signals highly depends on the type of signal
being considered
 Continuous value and Discrete value signals
 Continuous time and Discrete time signals
 Analogy and Digital signals
Deterministic and Random signals
 Real and complex signals
Periodic and non periodic signals
,  Even and Odd signals

 Energy and Power signals
 Causal and Non causal signals
Time limited and Band limited signals
 Baseband and Bandpass signals
,
 Sinusoidal Signals
It is of paramount importance to state that the sinusoidal signal is the most
widely-used signal in the analysis, design, and operation of communication
systems. The sinusoidal signal may be viewed as a simple oscillating curve
with
smooth and consistent changes, where each period consists of a single arc
above the time axis followed by a single arc below it.
,
Classification of Systems
Signals are operated on by systems, an understanding of systems is therefore
important in the analysis and design of communication systems
A systems is defined as a unique transformation that maps an input into an
output
 Baseband and Bandpass signals

A baseband system, like a lowpass filter, passes the low-frequency
components of the input signal. An example of a baseband system is the
twisted-pair wires forming the local access of the public switched telephone
network. A passband system, like a bandpass filter, can pass certain
, frequencies inside some frequency band, and reject frequencies outside that
band.
 Invertible and Noninvertible Systems
In an invertible system, the input of the system can be recovered from the
output. There must be a one-to-one mapping between input and output
signals for a system to be invertible; otherwise, it is a noninvertible system.
Adaptive and Fixed Systems

In an adaptive system, some of the system parameters, based on some
specified criterion, are adjusted iteratively over time so as to make the system
operate in or as close as to, an optimum fashion.
 Systems with or without Feedback

, In a feedback system, a portion of the system output is fed back into the
system, thus introducing a level of dependencies among input and output
signals in the system.
 Systems with or without Memory
In a system with memory, the output at a given time also depends on the
preceding and/or succeeding values of the input signal. In other words, the
present output value is also a function of the past and/or future values of the
input signal.
Systems with Single/Multiple Inputs and Single/Multiple

Outputs
We can thus have four different systems: i) single input, single output
(SISO), ii) single input, multiple outputs (SIMO), iii) multiple inputs, single
output (MISO), and iv) multiple inputs, multiple outputs (MIMO). SISO
, systems are employed in all wired communication systems as well as in
many wireless communication systems. However, the other three different
types of systems are almost exclusively employed in radio transmission,
where more than one antenna in the transmitter and/or in the receiver
may be employed..
 Passive and Active Systems
A passive system consists of circuit elements, such as resistors, capacitors, and
inductors, which are capable of dissipating or storing energy. An active
system
may include not only passive elements, but also active elements.
Causal and Noncausal Systems

A system is said to be causal if it does not respond before the input is applied.
In other words, in a causal system, the output at any time depends only on the
values of the input signal up to and including that time and does not depend
on the future values of the input..
,
 Stable and Unstable Systems
In a stable system, the output signal is bounded for all bounded input signals.
This requirement is known as the bounded-input bounded-output (BIBO)
stability criterion.
 Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Systems
A continuous-time system has continuous-time signals as its input and
continuous-time signals as its output. A discrete-time system has discrete-time
signals as its input and discrete-time signals as its output.
Linear and Nonlinear Systems

In a linear system, the superposition principle holds.
,
 Time-Invariant and Time-Varying Systems
In a time-invariant system, the input-output relationship does not change with
time. This means that a time shift (i.e., time delay or time advance) in the
input results in a corresponding time shift in the output. The characteristics of
a time invariant system do not change with time.
,
 Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) Systems
In a linear time-invariant (LTI) system, both linearity and time-invariance
conditions must be satisfied. For LTI systems, the input-output relationship
is straightforward..
,
Digital Transmission of Analogy signals
 What is Transmission?
 How does signal travel from TX to RX?
,
Radio Transmission/Propagation modes
The propagation characteristics of electromagnetic waves used
in radio channel are highly dependent on the operating
frequencies.
Ground wave propagation: AM Radio broadcasting, up to
2MHz
Sky wave propagation: FM radio broadcasting, from 2MHz to
30 MHz
Line of Sight propagation: from 30MHz
,
Transmission Impairments
 Signals travels through a transmission media that are not
perfect
The received signal is therefore different from the transmitted
one
Causes of Transmission Impairments
Attenuation: every channel introduces some transmission attenuation (loss)
Distortion: due to non-ideal channel, the transmitted signal changes its
form/shape.
, 1.Linear Distortion: Causes ISI and we can use Equalizers to reduce the effect
2.Non- Linear Distortion: occurs when the relationship between the input and
output is not linear. Causes Intermodulation and the solution is Filtering to
remove unwanted signals
3. Multipath Fading
 Interference: can be generated by other users of the same frequency or

by equipment's
 Noise: refers to unwanted ever-present random waves that tend to

disturb the transmission and processing of the signal
The Noise is AWGN
The effect of the noise can be minimized by appropriate Filtering
,
Sampling Process
 What is sampling?
 Why sampling?
 What should be the interval between samples?
,
Sampling Process
 This is the very first process in the conversion of analogy signal to digital
 There is no guarantee that the samples will be reconstructed at the receiver,
distortion must occurs
,
Instantaneous Sampling
 Instantaneous sampling a sequence of impulse functions is used to obtain the
ideal samples of the signal.
 The instantaneously sampled signal gs(t) can be viewed as multiplication of
g(t) and a periodic impulse train uniformly spaced Ts seconds apart.
 To understand well the process of instantaneous sampling let us consider the

samples signal in frequency domain.
 Fourier Transform of the equation above gives

,
Instantaneous Sampling
 Let us assume that the waveform of the FT of the input signal is as follows
for simplicity.
 In instantaneous sampling there are three cases that can be considered
1.Ideal sampling/Critical sampling

2.Oversampling
,
3.Undersampling
Natural Sampling
 In natural sampling, the continuous-time signal g(t), whose bandwidth isW,
is multiplied by a periodic pulse train.
 This multiplication can be viewed as the opening and closing of a high-speed
switch. This sampling is termed natural sampling, as the top of each pulse in
the sequence retains the shape of its corresponding original segment during
the pulse interval.
 Despite this difference, the original g(t) can be equally well recovered using
a LPF as long as the sampling rate fs is higher than the Nyquist rate.
,
Natural Sampling
 The output of the natural sampler is given as follows
 Fourier series formulas
,
Flat Top Sampling
 Flat-top sampling, also known as pulse amplitude modulation, is the most
practical sampling method, in which the sample-and-hold operation is
performed.
 In flat top sampling, the top of the samples remains constant and equal to
the instantaneous value of the modulating signal at the start of the sampling.
 During transmission, noise is introduced at top of the transmission pulse
which can be easily removed if the pulse is in the form of flat top. Here, the
top of the samples are flat i.e. they have constant amplitude. Hence, it is called
as flat top sampling or practical sampling
,
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 A pulse-code modulation (PCM) system, is a digital transmission system that
provides analog-to-digital conversion in the transmitter and digital-to-analog
conversion in the receiver as well as regeneration at intermediate points along
the transmission path as necessary.
,
Quantization Process
 is the nonlinear and lossy process as multiple input values can yield the same
output value
Types of Quantization
Scalar quantization: it is memoryless and instantaneous process and this can
be divided into two parts uniform quantization and non uniform quantization
Vector quantization: samples are quantized in blocks
,
Uniform Quantization
 is the type of quantization that is not optimal but is commonly used in
practice.
 Basically is a simple rounding process in which each sample value is
rounded to the nearest value from a finite set of possible quantization level.
 We assume that the signal amplitude at the input of the quantizer ranges
between the maximum value V and the minimum value  V
 The amplitude range   V ,V  is a limit set by the quantizer.
 The amplitude range   V ,V  is divided into L quantization levels
 The error introduced by this clipping is referred to as overload distortion or
clipping distortion
,
Step size of the uniform quantizer is given by

Uniform Quantization
 Within the supported amplitude range, the spacing between the continuous-
value and the discrete-value is referred to as its granularity.
 The error introduced by this spacing is referred to as quantization noise or

granular distortion or rounding error.
 The quantization error is bounded in magnitude and has generally a saw-

tooth shape, but overload distortion is unbounded.
 Each quantization level at the output of quantizer is typically mapped into a

codeword with R bits representing a quantized sample value.
,
Digital Transmission of Analogy
Uniform Quantization signals
 For a uniform quantizer, the quantization error e is a random variable.
 With sufficiently small step size, the quantization error can be assumed to
be uniformly distributed and uncorrelated with the quantizer input.
 To this effect, for a zero-mean random input signal with the standard
deviation σg, which is a measure of the spread of the signal values about the
zero mean, we define the loading (crest) factor as follows.
,
 the average power of the message signal g(t) is then defined as follows:
Uniform Quantization signals
 A sequence satisfying x(n) = x(n + kN) is called a periodic sequence with a
period N where N is a positive integer and k is any integer
Smallest value of N satisfying is called the fundamental period

A sequence not satisfying the periodicity condition is called an aperiodic
sequence.
 The average power of a periodic sequence with a period N is given by
,
PCM Datarate signals
•What is the datarate for voice signal?
• What is the datarate for video signal?
•How can you increase the datarate?
,
Transmission Channel signals
•What is channel?
• How do we choose channel for transmission?
,
signals
Transmission Channel Modeling
•Channel can be wired or wireless channel
• Modeling of the channel differs from one point and the other depending on
the channel use
•Channel is classified by at least two factors bandwidth and impulse response
•Mathematical channel modeling

AWGN Channel
LTI Channel
,
signals
Signal Bandwidth and Datarate
•What is Signal Bandwidth?
• How does Bandwidth relate to Datarate?
,
signals
Signal Bandwidth Definitions
•Absolute Bandwidth
• Half power Bandwidth
•Fractional power containment Bandwidth
,
signals
Factors affecting Datarate
•Distance of Transmission
• Signal used for transmission
•Coding of the signal
•Modulation
•Noise
,
Channel Bandwidth signals
• Channel of transmission can be wireless or wired channel
• Channel bandwidth shows the range of frequencies the media can support.
•In practice transmission system can only carry limited band of frequencies
,
Bandwidth utilization
•The sampled PAM waveform is off for most of the time
• During the off period the channel can be used to transmit samples of other
waveforms.
• The process of combining information stream from different users is called
Multiplexing.
• There are different multiple access technologies used in communication
systems such as FDM, TDM, CDMA and OFDMA
,
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
This can be synchronous or statistical multiplexing
,
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
,
UNIT 2
BASEBAND DIGITAL TRANSMISSION OF
ANALOG SIGNAL
Baseband Digital Transmission
Introduction
 Based on the distance between the Transmitter and the Receiver digital
signal can be transmitted either using
1.Baseband Digital Transmission
2.Passband Digital Transmission
 Important transmission parameters that should be considered during

transmission include Signal Power and Bandwidth
 Transmission of digital information is mainly affected by so called
Intersymbol Interference (ISI)
,
Baseband Transmission
 What is Baseband Digital Transmission?
 How do we transmit digital information using Baseband Transmission?
,
Pulse Shaping and ISI
 The selection of the pulse used for transmitting digital information is very
important aspect of digital transmission
 One of the main cause of Intersymbol interference in baseband digital
transmission is the type of pulse used for transmission
There are different types of pulses used in digital transmission
1.Sinc Pulses
2.Square/Rectangular Pulses
3.Raised Cosine Pulse
4.Triangular Pulse
,
Square/Rectangular Pulse and its Frequency Domain Representation
,
Triangular Pulse and its Frequency Domain Representation
,
Sinc Pulse and its Frequency Domain Representation
 Raised Cosine Pulse and its Frequency Domain Representation
Line Coding
 What is Line coding?
 What are the different schemes of Line Coding in digital transmission?
Line Coding Basics
 Line coding techniques convert bits (symbols) into waveforms (electrical
signal) this is also called baseband modulation.
There are different types of Line coding applied in baseband transmission
each having different features.
 Each line coding schemes is having some levels (voltage or current levels).
 There supposed to be a way on how you can select the proper line coding
scheme to be used for baseband transmission
Desirable Properties of Line Codes
Transmission Bandwidth
The line codes should use less Bandwidth since Bandwidth is scarce and costly
resource.
 Transmission Power Efficiency

Line codes are frequently used for short range communication (short distance
communication) example signal transmission from one chip to another chip of
a computer
 Low Probability of Error

While reconstruction at the receiver it has to give low probability of error
 Self synchronization
There should be enough timing information build into the code. A long series
of ones and zeros should not cause any problem in timing recovery
 Error detection &correction capability

Line coding should comfortable work with channel encoders and decoders
 DC Components
The dc component is usually not desirable because some of the componets of
communication system like transformers and multi-stage amplifiers cause
distortion and unwanted energy loss
Transparency
The property that any arbitrary symbol or bit pattern can be transmitted and
received
Basic Pulse Shaping Techniques
Assuming that in every period we transmit a single bit and there different
types of pulse shaping techniques
1.Unipolar
The mapping of the symbols is as follows
Bits Levels (Voltage/Current)

1 +a
0 0
Basic Pulse Shaping Techniques
2. Polar
Bits Levels(Volts)
1 +a
0 -a
3. Bipolar/Pseudo Ternary Codes
Bits Levels (Volts)

1 +a, -a
0 0
Basic Pulses used in Line Coding
The pulses are described based on the symbol/bit duration and all the pulses
are either square pulse or rectangular pulse.
1.Non Return to Zero (NRZ) Pulse

Within Tb the pulse occupies the entire bit duration
2. Return to Zero (RZ) Pulse
The pulse occupies some duration of the symbol duration for simplicity we
will assume that it occupies half the duration
3. Manchester Pulse
This is the pulse that shows transition form high to lo low within one symbol
duration for bit one and vice versa for bit zero
Example: Line Coding
Given the following output of the encoder (1,1,1,1,0,0,0,1,1). Draw the
waveforms representing the followings assuming the voltage level is 3 volts
1.Unipolar NRZ
2.Polar NRZ
3. Unipolar RZ
4.Bipolar RZ
5.Polar Manchester
Power Spectral Density (PSD) of Line Codes
A Power Spectral Density (PSD) is the measure of signal's power content
versus frequency.
 Different line coding scheme have different spectrum
 One of the equation used in the evaluation of PSD is called Winey-

Khintchine relationship
 Another equation is called poison Formula

PSD of NRZ Polar
 We need to fine the PSD of this pulsing scheme
Finite PSD of NRZ Bipolar
 This is given by the following equation
Diagram showing PSD of different line codes
Band-Limited Channel and ISI
 What is ISI in baseband Transmission?
Band-Limited Channel and ISI
 Channel is a filter it will pass signals I a certain range
 Band-limited nature of the channel introduces time dispersion
 It may lead to wrong decisions at the receiver

Baseband Transmission, Reception and ISI
Baseband Transmission
 Time dispersion introduces ISI
 Transmitting Filter precompansate the effect of ISI

Baseband Reception
 The receiver output is a continuous signal
Receiving Filter post compensate the effect of ISI
We are supposed to take samples
 Samples taken at the receiver should be compared with a certain threshold

value
 Once you compare the transmitted bits and Received bits then you have to
determine the Probability of Error
Time Domain Condition for Zero ISI
 Pulse generator output
 The output of the Transmitting Filter is given by the following equation
 Then the signal is transmitted through the channel and the receiving filter
input
 The receiver Filter output
 We need to discretize the received signal
 The output of the receiver is sampled and the samples obtained are
compared with the threshold value
 We need to receive only the symbol
 Consider the following equation after samplimg
 The signals may then be processed digitally and/or transmitted in digital
form
 Resulting digital signals often need to be converted back to analogue form
or “reconstructed”.
 Often, a discrete-time sequence x[n] is developed by uniformly sampling a

continuous-time signal as indicated below
Equalization
 The issue of ISI can be dealt at the transmitter and also at the receiver
 At the receiver there is the use of Equalizer
Equalization
 The equalizer is a device that attempts to reverse the distortion incurred by a
signal transmitted through a channel.
In digital communication its purpose is to reduce inter symbol interference to
allow recovery of the transmit symbols.
 Nullify the effect introduced by the channel
 Improves system performance

Equalization
 Simply Equalizer is the Filter that compensates the effect of the channel
 Equalizer can be Linear or Non- Linear Equalizer
 We can have adaptive Equalizer or Fixed Equalizer

Advantages of Baseband Digital Transmission
 Simplicity
 Low cost
 Easy of Installation and Maintenance
 High rates
Limitations of Baseband Digital Transmission
 Limited Distances
 Data and Voice only

UNIT 3
DIGITAL CARRIER MODULATION SYSTEMS
Digital Carrier Modulation Systems
Introduction
 What is Passband Transmission?
 Why Passband Transmission?

Advantages of Passband Transmission
 Data, voice and video can be accomplished on broadband channel.
 Greater distances
 Greater bandwidth
Challenges of Digital Carrier Modulation Systems
 Interferences (jamming or interferences by neighboring frequencies)
 Multipath Fading
 Installation cost
 Maintenance cost
Modulation
 What is Modulation?
 Why Modulation?
Modulation
 Modulating signal, carrier and Modulated signal
Modulation
Modulation is the process of encoding information from a message source in a
manner suitable for transmission.
 It is generally involves translating a baseband message signal (called the source)

to a bandpass signal at frequencies that are very high when compared to the base
band frequency.
 The bandpass signal is called the modulated signal, and the baseband message
signal is called the modulating signal.
 Modulation may be done by varying the amplitude, phase or frequency of a high

frequency carrier in accordance with the amplitude of the message signal.
Demodulation is the process of extracting the baseband message from the carrier
so that it may be processed by the intended receiver
Classification of Modulation
 Based on the Modulating signal
 Based on the Carrier used
 Based on the number of carriers used
 Based on the ratio of the Modulated signal and the Modulating
signal
Digital Modulation
 Modern mobile communication systems use digital modulation techniques.
Advancements in very large-scale integration (VLSI) and digital signal
processing(DSP) technology have made digital modulation more cost effective
than analog transmission systems.
 Digital modulation offers many advantages over analog modulation. Some

advantages include greater noise immunity and robustness to channel impairments,
easier multiplexing of various forms of information (e.g., voice, data, and video),
and greater security
Comparison Between Analogy and Digital Modulation
Analogy Modulation Digital Modulation
Less Bandwidth Large Bandwidth
Low noisy immunity High noise immunity as the
amplitude of the digital has
two levels only and channel
coding(error correcting codes)
can be used
More accurate Less accurate due to the
Quantization error that can not
be avoided or corrected
Low level of security High level of security as you
can use Encryption
(Ciphering) and
Authentication
No signal conditioning and Support complex signal
processing are used conditioning and processing
techniques such as source coding,
encryption, and equalization
Low QOS High QOS
You can use FDM only You can use FDM, TDM,
CDM,OFDM multiplexing
techniques
In mobile communications, analog In mobile communications, digital
supports voice service only supports voice, SMS, data (you
can access the internet), images
and video call
More difficult to design than Easily designed using software
Digital
Digital Modulation Schemes
Introduction
 Digital Modulation provides more information capacity, high data security,
quicker system availability with great quality communication. Hence, digital
modulation techniques have a greater demand, for their capacity to convey larger
amounts of data than analog modulation techniques.
 There are many types of digital modulation techniques and also their
combinations, depending upon the need
Modulation schemes at the transmitter
 At the transmitter the digital modulation schemes can be classified as
follows
1.How many bits transmitted in a given signal

One bit can be transmitted per signal or more than one bit
2.Constant envelope modulation or Nonconstant envelope modulation

Constant envelop modulation is the modulation type that the amplitude of the
carrier is not modulate is it is immune for noise in amplitude
Factors that influence the choice of digital modulation schemes
Low bit error rates at low received signal to noise ratio.

Performs well in multi-path and fading conditions, and in interference
environment.
Occupies a minimum bandwidth.

Easy and cost-effective to implement.

Cost and complexity of the receiver subscribers must be minimized.
Modulation which is simple to detect is most attractive.
Note That
There is no modulation scheme that satisfies all these requirements, so trade-
offs are made when selecting a modulation scheme.
Digital Modulation schemes
Modulation at the Receiver (Demodulation)
 Digital modulation techniques may be classified into coherent and non-
coherent techniques depending on whether the receiver is equipped with a
phase-recovery circuit or not.
 The phase recovery circuit ensures that the oscillator supplying the locally
generated carrier wave in the receiver is synchronized (in both frequency and
phase) to the transmitter oscillator
Modulation at the Receiver (Demodulation)
Types of modulation schemes in different advanced digital
communication systems
Orthogonal &Orthonormal Functions
 What is orthogonal function?
 What is orthonormal function?
 Why orthogonal and orthonormal functions in digital communication?

Orthogonal Functions
 A set S of vectors in an inner product space V is called an orthogonal set if
every pair of vectors in the set is orthogonal
 Two functions are said to be orthogonal if
Orthonormal Functions
 An orthogonal set in which each vector is a unit vector is called
orthonormal
Example
 Check whether the following functions are
1.Orthogonal
2.Orthonormal
Geometric Representation of Signals
Introduction
 What is signal space representation?
 Why signal space representation?

Transmitter Side
 Symbol generation (message) is probabilistic, with a priori probabilities p1,
p2, ….. pM
 Symbols are equally likely

 So, probability that symbol mi will be emitted
Transmitter Side
 Transmitter takes the symbol (data) mi (digital message source output) and
encodes it into a distinct signal si(t).
 The signal si(t) occupies the whole slot T allotted to symbol mi
 si(t) is a real valued energy signal (signal with finite energy)

Transmitter Side
 Objective: To represent any set of M energy signals {si(t)} as linear
combinations of N orthogonal basis functions, where N ≤ M
 Real value energy signals s1(t), s2(t),..sM(t), each of duration T sec
Transmitter Side
 Coefficients are given by the following expression

Transmitter Side
The set of coefficients can be viewed as a N-dimensional vector, denoted by s i
 Bears a one-to-one relationship with the transmitted signal si(t)
 Each signal in the set si(t) is completely determined by the vector of its
coefficients
Transmitter Side: Orthogonolization Procedures
 Assume a set of M energy signals denoted by s1(t), s2(t), .. , sM(t).
1. Define the first basis function

starting with s1 as: (where E is
the energy of the signal)
2. Then express s1(t) using the

basis function and an energy
related coefficient s11 as:
3. Later using s2 define the

coefficient s21 as:
4. If we introduce the
intermediate function g2
as:
5. We can define the second

basis function φ2(t) as:
6. Which after substitution of

g2(t) using s1(t) and s2(t) it
becomes:
• Note that φ1(t) and φ2(t)

are orthogonal that means:
 In general a basis function can be defined using the following formula
 where the coefficients can be defined using
 Given a function gi(t) we can define a set of basis functions, which form an
orthogonal set, as
Example:
 What is the relation between the vector representation of a signal and its
energy value?
Definitions
The modulation of digital signals is a process involving switching (keying)
the amplitude, frequency or phase of a sinusoidal carrier in some way in
accordance with the incoming digital data.
 Three basic schemes exist:

1. Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
2. Frequency shift keying (FSK)
3. Phase shift keying (PSK)
Definitions
Illustrative waveforms for the three basic forms of signaling binary
information. (a) Amplitude-shift keying. (b) Phase-shift keying. (c)
Frequency-shift keying with continuous phase
Digital Modulation Schemes: Coherent Binary
Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
Introduction
 What is BPSK?
 Where is it applied in digital communication?
 What are the advantages and disadvantages of BPSK?
Coherent Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
Transmitter side
 In a coherent binary PSK the pair of signals used to represent binary 1 and
0 are defined as.
Transmitter side
In BPSK there is only one basis function of unit energy expressed as
 So the transmitted signals can be expressed as

Transmitter side
A coherent BPSK system can be characterized by having a signal space that
is one dimensional (N= 1), with signal constellation consisting of two message
points (M = 2).
 The coordinates of the message points are
Transmitter side
Receiver Side
Receiver Side
 At the receiver due to the presence of noise it might lead to
errors.
 AWGN channels, the observation elements Xi are Gaussian RV
with mean  and variance N0/2.
 noisy PSK is fed to a correlator with locally generated
reference signal
 correlator output is compared to a threshold of 0 volts in the
decision device
Receiver Side: System Performance Analysis
 There are so many factors that can be used to measure the performance of
any digital Modulation schemes.
We need to analyze the performance of the system so that to be in a position

of choosing which is the good system in terms of performance metrics
 Some of these factors includes

1.Bit Error Rate
2. Bandwidth Efficiency
3. System Complexity
Probability of Bit Error Analysis
 Assuming the channel is binary symmetric
 noise is the RV given by the following expression
 The expression of the Pdf of Gaussian RV is given by the following

expression
 When bit zero is transmitted the Pdf is given by the following expression,
assuming that Y is the output of the integrator
 When bit one is transmitted the Pdf is given by the following expression,
assuming that Y is the output of the integrator
 The probability of error is usually expressed in terms of error function
 The probability of error of bit zero is

 The probability of error of bit one is
 The total error of probability is

Advantages
 BPSK demodulator requires to make only two decisions in order to recover
original binary information. Hence BPSK receiver is very simple compare to
other modulation types
 BPSK is power efficient modulation technique as less power is needed to

transmit the carrier with less number of bits
Coherent Binary Phase Shift Keying (BFSK)
Disadvantages
 In BPSK modulation, one bit is carried by one single analog carrier. Hence
data rate in bits per second is same as the symbol rate. This is half in
comparison to the QPSK modulation technique and many times less compare
to other higher modulation techniques such as 16QAM, 64QAM
 BPSK is not bandwidth efficient modulation technique compare to other

modulation schemes
Coherent Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK)
Introduction
 The instantaneous carrier frequency is switched between 2 or more levels
according to the baseband digital data
data bits select a carrier at one of two frequencies
the data is encoded in the frequency
 Until recently, FSK has been the most widely used form of digital
modulation due to the following reasons
Simple both to generate and detect
Insensitive to amplitude fluctuations in the channel
 FSK conveys the data using distinct carrier frequencies to represent symbol
states
 An important property of FSK is that the amplitude of the modulated wave is
constant
Transmitter side
 In BFSK, 2 different frequencies, f1 and f2 are used to transmit binary
information
 Data is encoded in the frequencies
 That is, x(t) is used to select between 2 frequencies
 Based on the message bit 1 and 0 we are going to change the carrier
frequency
Transmitter side
 This is also called orthogonal modulation, not only the basis functions are
orthogonal even the signals are orthogonal
 Choose the frequency in such a way that the signals are orthogonal
Transmitter side
 The basis functions used in BFSK are
 Since there are two basis functions the signal space diagram now will 2D
and the vectors transmitted are as given below
 When bit 0 is transmitted When bit 1 is transmitted

Transmitter side
 Diagram below is used for decision making
Receiver side
 The coherent BFSK receiver is given by the following diagram
Receiver side
 Since the channel is AWGN the transmitted signal will have noise
components added to it.
 The signals will be received as vectors for both bit 1 and 0 respectively
 For bit zero the received vector signal is
 For bit one the received vector signal is

 Assuming the channel is binary symmetric
 noise is the RV given by the following expression
 The expression of the Pdf of Gaussian RV is given by the following

expression
 Assuming that Noise is IID Gausian
 When symbol 1 is transmitted the corresponding pdf of RV Y is given by the
following
 When symbol 1 is transmitted the corresponding pdf of RV Y is given by the

following
 The probability of error is usually expressed in terms of error function
 The probability of error for bit one is

 The probability of error of bit zero is
 The total error of probability is

Advantages of BFSK
 It has lower probability of error (Pe).
It provides high SNR (Signal to Noise Ratio).
It has higher immunity to noise due to constant envelope. Hence it is robust
against variation in attenuation through channel.
FSK transmitter and FSK receiver implementations are simple for low data
rate applications
Disadvantages
It uses larger bandwidth compare to other modulation techniques such as
ASK and PSK. Hence it is not bandwidth efficient.
FSK is not preferred for the high-speed modems because with increases in
speed and also have the bit rate increases
Z-Transform
Two-Sided Exponential Sequence ROC
n n
 1 1
xn     un -   u- n - 1
 3 2
0 
 1 1   1 1 
n   z    z 

 1 1   3   3  1
 
n0 

3
z 


1

1
1  z 1 1  z 1
3 3
 0
 1 1   1 1 
n  z    z 
1
 1 1   2   2  1
  z  
n   2  1

1
1  z 1 1  z 1
2 2
Z-Transform
Two-Sided Exponential Sequence ROC
 1 
2z z  
1 1  12 
X z    
1 1 1  1  1
1 z 1  z 1  z   z  
3 2  3  2
1 1 1 1
ROC :  z 1 ROC : z 1
3 2
1 1
 z  z
3 2
Z-Transform
Properties of The ROC of Z-Transform
 The ROC is a ring or disk centered at the origin
 DTFT exists if and only if the ROC includes the unit circle
 The ROC cannot contain any poles
 The ROC for finite-length sequence is the entire z-plane
except possibly z=0 and z=
 The ROC for a right-handed sequence extends outward from the outermost
pole possibly including z= 
 The ROC for a left-handed sequence extends inward from the innermost
pole possibly including z=0
 The ROC of a two-sided sequence is a ring bounded by poles
 The ROC must be a connected region
 A z-transform does not uniquely determine a sequence without specifying
the ROC.
Z-Transform
Stability, Causality, and the ROC
 Stable system; the impulse response is absolutely summable and the DTFT
of impulse response exist
 The impulse response of a casual LTI system is determined from the
transfer function by using right-sided inverse transform.
 The impulse response of a causal system is zero for n<0.
 The poles inside the unit circle, contributes an exponentially decaying term
to the impulse response.
 The poles outside the unit circle, contributes an exponentially increasing
term.

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Digital Telecommunications

Instructor : Mr Nasolwa Edson

 Main purpose of communication is to transfer information from a

 Basic block diagram of a communication system:

 Block diagram of digital communication system.

 How do you identify the bandwidth (spectrum) of the signal?

,  Even and Odd signals

 Baseband and Bandpass signals

Adaptive and Fixed Systems

 Systems with or without Feedback

Systems with Single/Multiple Inputs and Single/Multiple

Causal and Noncausal Systems

Linear and Nonlinear Systems

 How does signal travel from TX to RX?

 Interference: can be generated by other users of the same frequency or

 Noise: refers to unwanted ever-present random waves that tend to

 To understand well the process of instantaneous sampling let us consider the

 Fourier Transform of the equation above gives

 In instantaneous sampling there are three cases that can be considered

1.Ideal sampling/Critical sampling

 Fourier series formulas

Step size of the uniform quantizer is given by

 The error introduced by this spacing is referred to as quantization noise or

 The quantization error is bounded in magnitude and has generally a saw-

 Each quantization level at the output of quantizer is typically mapped into a

Smallest value of N satisfying is called the fundamental period

•Channel is classified by at least two factors bandwidth and impulse response

•Mathematical channel modeling

 Important transmission parameters that should be considered during

 Transmission Power Efficiency

 Low Probability of Error

 Error detection &correction capability

Bits Levels (Voltage/Current)

3. Bipolar/Pseudo Ternary Codes

Bits Levels (Volts)

1.Non Return to Zero (NRZ) Pulse

 One of the equation used in the evaluation of PSD is called Winey-

 Another equation is called poison Formula

 Band-limited nature of the channel introduces time dispersion

 It may lead to wrong decisions at the receiver

 Transmitting Filter precompansate the effect of ISI

Receiving Filter post compensate the effect of ISI

We are supposed to take samples

 Samples taken at the receiver should be compared with a certain threshold

 The output of the Transmitting Filter is given by the following equation

 We need to discretize the received signal

 Often, a discrete-time sequence x[n] is developed by uniformly sampling a

 Improves system performance

 Equalizer can be Linear or Non- Linear Equalizer

 We can have adaptive Equalizer or Fixed Equalizer

 Data and Voice only

 Why Passband Transmission?

 Interferences (jamming or interferences by neighboring frequencies)

 It is generally involves translating a baseband message signal (called the source)

 Modulation may be done by varying the amplitude, phase or frequency of a high

 Digital modulation offers many advantages over analog modulation. Some

1.How many bits transmitted in a given signal

2.Constant envelope modulation or Nonconstant envelope modulation

Low bit error rates at low received signal to noise ratio.