TN 324: INTELLIGENT

INSTRUMENTATION
Instructor: Mr. Mwalongo M, R

(Assistant Lecturer)

Office No: AB 15 (Admin Block)

E-mail: [email protected]
INTRODUCTION TO SENSORS AND
TRANSDUCERS
 DEFINITIONS OF SENSOR AND TRANSDUCER
The words 'sensor' and 'transducer' are both widely used in the
description of measurement systems.

The word 'SENSOR' is derived from entire meaning 'to perceive'

and 'TRANSDUCER' is from transducer meaning 'to lead across'.

A dictionary definition of 'sensor' is `a device that detects a change

in a physical stimulus and turns it into a signal which can be
measured or recorded;

A corresponding definition of 'transducer' is 'a device that transfers

power from one system to another in the same or in the different
form'.
 DEFINITIONS OF SENSOR AND
TRANSDUCER CONT.

A sensible distinction is to use 'sensor' for the sensing element itself

and 'transducer' for the sensing element plus any associated

circuitry.

All transducers would thus contain a sensor and most (though not
all) sensors would also be transducers.
OVERVIEW
 Sensors?
 Commonly Detectable Phenomenon
 Physical Principles – How Sensors Work?
 Need for Sensors
 Choosing a Sensor
 Examples
SENSORS?
 American National Standards Institute
 A device which provides a usable output in response to a specified
measurand.
Input Signal Output Signal

Sensor

 A sensor acquires a physical quantity and converts it into a

signal suitable for processing (e.g. optical, electrical,
mechanical)
 Nowadays common sensors convert measurement of physical
phenomena into an electrical signal.
 Active element of a sensor is called a transducer.
 TRANSDUCER?
A device which converts one form of energy to another
When input is a physical quantity and output electrical → Sensor
When input is electrical and output a physical quantity → Actuator

e.g. Piezoelectric:
Sensors Actuators Force -> voltage

Physical Electrical Voltage-> Force

parameter Input

Electrical => Ultrasound!

Physical
Output Output Microphone, Loud Speaker
COMMONLY DETECTABLE PHENOMENA
•Biological
•Chemical
•Electric
•Electromagnetic
•Heat/Temperature
•Magnetic
•Mechanical motion (displacement, velocity, acceleration, etc.)
•Optical
•Radioactivity
 COMMON CONVERSION METHODS
•Physical
–thermo-electric, thermo-elastic, thermo-magnetic, thermo-optic
–photo-electric, photo-elastic, photo-magnetic,
–electro-elastic, electro-magnetic
–magneto-electric
•Chemical
–chemical transport, physical transformation, electro-chemical
•Biological
–biological transformation, physical transformation
COMMONLY MEASURED QUANTITIES
Stimulus Quantity
Acoustic Wave (amplitude, phase, polarization), Spectrum, Wave
Velocity

Biological & Chemical Fluid Concentrations (Gas or Liquid)

Electric Charge, Voltage, Current, Electric Field (amplitude, phase,

polarization), Conductivity, Permittivity

Magnetic Magnetic Field (amplitude, phase, polarization), Flux,

Permeability

Optical Refractive Index, Reflectivity, Absorption

Thermal Temperature, Flux, Specific Heat, Thermal Conductivity

Mechanical Position, Velocity, Acceleration, Force, Strain, Stress,

Pressure, Torque
PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES: EXAMPLES
 Amperes’s Law
 A current carrying conductor in a magnetic field experiences a force (e.g.
galvanometer)

 Faraday’s Law of Induction

 A coil resist a change in magnetic field by generating an opposing
voltage/current (e.g. transformer).

 Photoconductive Effect
 When light strikes certain semiconductor materials, the resistance of the
material decreases (e.g. photoresistor)
CHOOSING A SENSOR
NEED FOR SENSORS
 Sensors are pervasive. They are embedded in our bodies,
automobiles, airplanes, cellular telephones, radios, chemical
plants, industrial plants and countless other applications.
 Without the use of sensors, there would be no automation !!
 Imagine having to manually fill Poland Spring bottles.
 MOTION SENSORS
 Monitor location of various parts in a system
 absolute/relative position
 angular/relative displacement
 proximity
 acceleration
 Principle of operation
 Magnetic, resistive, capacitance, inductive, eddy current, etc.

Potentiometer
Primary Secondary

Optoisolator
LVDT Displacement Sensor
 STRAIN GAUGE: MOTION, STRESS,
PRESSURE

Strain gauge is used to measure deflection, stress, pressure, etc.

The resistance of the sensing element changes with applied strain
A Wheatstone bridge is used to measure small changes in the strain gauge
resistance
TEMPERATURE SENSOR: BIMETALLIC
STRIP
 Bimetallic Strip
Metal A

δ
 Application
Metal B
 Thermostat (makes or
breaks electrical
connection with
deflection)
 TEMPERATURE SENSOR: RTD

 Resistance temperature device

(RTD)

R  R 0[1   (T - T0)]
 OTHER TEMPERATURE
SENSORS

 Thermistor • Thermocouple: Seeback effect to

transform a temperature difference to a
Therm
   istor
 voltage difference
Thermal Resistor

 Eg 
R  exp  
 2 kT 
 CAPACITANCE TRANSDUCERS—I
• Recall, capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is:

 r 0 A
C
d
– A: overlapping area of plates (m2)
Air escape hole
– d: distance between the two plates of the capacitor (m)
–  0: permittivity of air or free space 8.85pF/m air

–  r :dielectric constant
Parallel plate Fuel tank
capacitor
•The following variations can be utilized to make capacitance-based sensors.
–Change distance between the parallel electrodes.
–Change the overlapping area of the parallel electrodes.
–Change the dielectric constant.
 ACCELEROMETER–I

 Accelerometers are used to measure

acceleration along one or more axis and
are relatively insensitive to orthogonal
directions
 Applications
 Motion, vibration, blast, impact, shock
wave
 Mathematical description is beyond the
scope of this presentation.

m Position Sensor

k b

Vibrating Base
 Accelerometer Applications
 Automotive: monitor vehicle tilt, roll, skid, impact, vibration, etc., to deploy
safety devices (stability control, anti-lock breaking system, airbags, etc.)
and to ensure comfortable ride (active suspension)
 Aerospace: inertial navigation, smart munitions, unmanned vehicles
 Sports/Gaming: monitor athlete performance and injury, joystick, tilt
 Personal electronics: cell phones, digital devices
 Security: motion and vibration detection
 Industrial: machinery health monitoring
 Robotics: self-balancing

Segway

2 axis joystick WII Nunchuk: 3 axis accelerometer

 LIGHT SENSOR

 Light sensors are used in

cameras, infrared detectors, and
ambient lighting applications

 Sensor is composed of
photoconductor such as a
photoresistor, photodiode, or
phototransistor
I
p n

+ V -
 PHOTORESISTORS
• Light sensitive variable resistors.
• Its resistance depends on the intensity of light incident upon it.
– Under dark condition, resistance is quite high (M: called dark resistance).
– Under bright condition, resistance is lowered (few hundred ).
• Response time:
– When a photoresistor is exposed to light, it takes a few milliseconds, before it
lowers its resistance.
– When a photoresistor experiences removal of light, it may take a few seconds
to return to its dark resistance.
• Photoresistors exhibit a nonlinear characteristics for incident optical illumination
versus the resulting resistance.
log10 R     log10 P
104
R 103
102
101

101 102 103 104 Symbol

Relative illumination (P)
 MAGNETIC FIELD SENSOR

 Magnetic Field sensors are used

for power steering, security, and
current measurements on
transmission lines

 Hall voltage is proportional to

magnetic field

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I (protons) x x x x x x +
x x x B x x x VH
x x x x x x -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
I B
VH 
n  q t
 ULTRASONIC SENSOR

 Ultrasonic sensors are used for

position measurements
 Sound waves emitted are in the
range of 2-13 MHz
 Sound Navigation And Ranging
(SONAR)
 Radio Dection And Ranging
(RADAR) –
ELECTROMAGNETIC 15° - 20°
WAVES !!
 PHOTOGATE

 Photogates are used in counting

applications (e.g. finding period of
period motion)

 Infrared transmitter and receiver at

opposite ends of the sensor

 Time at which light is broken is

recorded
THANK YOU!!!!!!!!!!

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