Construction of Film and Its Types

Roshan Chaudhary
M.Sc. MIT , Final Year
Roll No: 18
 Radiographic Film

History
 By the time x-rays were discovered, photography was already an
art.
 First x-rays recorded on glass plates.
 These were coated with emulsion on one side only.
 The exposure dose was quite high.
 Glass plates were used until World war I.
 During WWI, nitrocellulose based film was found to be a more
feasible choice for recording x-rays. This film was single-
emulsion.
 Radiographic Film

History
 It was later discovered that double-emulsion responded to x-rays
faster.
 The flaw with nitrocellulose based film was its easy flammability.
 In 1924, cellulose acetate replaced the nitrocellulose based film.
 In the early 1960s, a polyester base was introduced. Polyester has
taken the place of cellulose triacetate as the film base of choice.
 Radiographic Film
 Similar to a photographic plate.
 Sandwiched between the radiographic intensifying screens in a protective
cassette.
 Differential attenuation of X ray within the patient contains medical
information.
 Information captured and decoded by the radiographic film.
 Film is decoded by processing and developing the film. But, digital film
images are digitally acquired, post processed.
 The radiographic intensifying screen emits visible light, which exposes
the radiographic film placed between the two screens.
 Transfers information from an x-ray beam to the eye-brain complex of
the radiologist.
 Although some x-rays reach the film emulsion, it is primarily light from
the radiographic intensifying screens that expose the radiographic film.
 Classification of Radiographic Film

Double Coated Single coated

Screen type –general

radiographic film
Screen type

Non screen type Non screen type Mammographic film

Dental film
CRT film
Kidney surgery film
Copying film
Radiation monitoring
Laser Film
film
Substraction film
Drystar film
Dryview filim
 Construction of Film

A) Double Emulsion/
Duplitized Film

B) Single Emulsion Film

 Layers of Film

Radiographic Film constitutes the:

 BASE

 SUBBING LAYER

 EMULSION LAYER

 SUPERCOAT
 Layers of Radiographic Film

BASE:
 Foundation of radiographic film, 150 to 300 μm thick.
Base Materials:
 Historically, Base made up of glass plate were used, coated
with thin layer of emulsion on one side.
 Cellulose Nitrate Base: Replaced Glass plate base in early
1920s– Highly flammable in nature.
 Cellulose Triacetate Base: Developed in 1924, replaced
Cellulose Nitrate base– Non-inflammable in nature.
 Polyster Base (Polyethylene Terepthalate Resin): Adopted in
1960s- Replaced all other bases.
-Better dimensional stability and colorless.
 Layers of Radiographic Film

BASE: Function of base :

 Colored dye is added to the Provide support for
base of most radiographic film
to slightly tint the film blue.
emulsion layer.
 Coloring reduces eyestrain and To transmit light.
fatigue, enhancing radiologists’
diagnostic efficiency and
accuracy.
 All present radiographic film
are blue tinted.
 Characteristics of Ideal Base

 Transparent and transmit light uniformly.

 Strong but flexible.
 Uniform in color & thickness.
 Stable throughout processing.
 Impermeable to water and processing solution.
 Non-flammable.
 Chemically unreactive.
 Layers of Radiographic Film

Subbing Layer
 Also called Adhesive layer or Substratum layer.
 Made of mixture of gelatin solution and solvent of film base.
 It keeps emulsion layer and base adhered to each other during
coating stage and processing.
 When dye is added, it counteracts cross over effect.
 Provides uniform surface over which the emulsion can be
coated uniformly.
 Layers of Radiographic Film

Emulsion
 Most active layer k/a Heart of the film.
 Consists of crystals of silver bromide (AgBr) suspended in
Gelatin(collagen of animal tissues, usually cattle bones.).
 In a typical emulsion; 98% of silver halide is silver bromide
and (1-2%)are silver iodide.
 Also contains traces of Sulfur (Allylthiourea).
 May be Tabular, cubic, octahedral, polygonal in shape.
 Tabular shape used most commonly for general radiography.
 About 0.1μm thick and 1μm in diameter.
 AgBr- Crystals
A B C

A. Older Irregular Crystals B. Tabular Grains C. Cubic Grains

NEWER FLAT CRYSTALS
 Formation of Silver Hallide Crystals

1) Metallic Silver Dissolved in Nitric Acid (HNO3) to form Siliver

Nitrate (AgNO3)

2)Siliver Nitrate (AgNO3) reacts with Potassium Bromide to form

crystalline Silver Bromide(AgBr).

AgNO3 (aq) + KBr (aq) → KNO3 (aq) + AgBr (s)
 Formation of Silver Hallide Crystals
Each cubic centimeter of emulsion contains- 6.3 X 103 silver hallide
grains.
Each grain contains about 1-10 million silver ions.
 Crystal Defects
A perfect crystal has no sensitivity.
AgBr in emulsion- Imperfect Crystal and contains several defects.
Types of Defects:
Point Defect/Freknel Defect
Line Defect
Schotky Defect
 Crystal Defects
Point Defect/Frenkel Defect
A point defect consists of a ion that moves out of its normal
position in the crystal lattice (Interstitial Space).
Doesnot affect the density of the crsytal.
 Crystal Defects
Line Defect
Dislocation line imperfection in the crystal.
Causes a strain in the wall structure.
Iodine ions strain the crystal in this way.
 Crystal Defects
Schotky Defect
Arises due to the missing of equal number of cations and anions
from the crystal lattice.
Results in decrease in the density of the crystal.
Found in highly ionic compunds like AgBr, NaCl ans CsCl.
 Chemical Sensitization

Chemical sensitization of the crystals are produced by adding

sulphur containing agent(allylthiourea).
Allylthiourea reacts with AgBr to form Silver Sulfide (Ag2S).
Ag2S is located on the surface of the crystal and referred to as
sensitivity speck- Traps the electrons to begin formation of the
latent image centers.

Allylthiourea AgBr Ag2S

 Gelatin
 Collagen of animal source is hydrolyzed by boiling water to make the
complex protein called Gelatin.
Speciality of gelatin
› Suitable medium in which Silver nitrate and Sodium bromide can react and the
resulting Silver bromide get finely and evenly dispersed and remain
suspended.
› In warm state it can be easily spread on the film base.
› On cooling, it sets firmly on the base and shows remarkable mechanical
strength.
› It is flexible and does not crack easily on bending.
› It is optically transparent.
› Some of the constituents in gelatin enhances the activity of Silver bromide and
some act as antifoggant
 Layers of Radiographic Film

Supercoat:
 It is a thin layer of gelatin.
 The three prime functions are-
 To protect the emulsion from pressure and abrasion.

 To provide suitable surface characteristics.

 To reduce static spark.
 Anti-Halation Layer
 Halation : it is a phenomenon characterized by formation of a
diffuse image or halo around the proper image.
 This occurs mainly in the single sided film.
 Methods To Prevent Halation
 Adding a dye to non-curling layer.
 Adding a dye to base
 Methods To Prevent Halation

a) Adding a dye to non-curling layer

 Preferred for single sided emulsion film.

 These dyes are removed during development.

 Methods To Prevent Halation

b) Adding a dye to the base

 These dyes cannot be removed during development.

 Dye introduced in the base is carefully controlled because it

increase the density and may interrupt the transparency of the
film.

 Note-dye used in this should be complementary to the exposing

light. e.g. red dye is used for green sensitive film
 Making the Film Emulsion

The light sensitive layer of a film is termed the Emulsion. The

preparation of emulsion is carried out in four stages:
 Emulsification
 Ripening
 Washing
 Digestion
 Making the Film Emulsion

a) Emulsification
 Aqueous solution of Silver nitrate and Potassium bromide is
mixed with warm solution of gelatin.
AgNO3 + KBr AgBr + KNO3
 Insoluble Silver bromide (AgBr) remains suspended in viscous
gelatin.
 More rapid process of mixing results small grain size, that results
narrow grain size distribution hence there is low graininess &
better resolution.
 Note –more bromide is used to increase the negative charge
barrier that helps in development process
 Making the Film Emulsion
b) Ripening
Emulsion is placed in certain temperature and more gelatin is mixed.
Size of the grains and their even distribution is determined at this stage.

 Slow mixing with long ripening at high temp.

=> Fast emulsion (with large grains)

 Rapid mixing with short ripening at low temp.

=> Slow emulsion (with fine grains)

 Slow mixing with NH3 at low temp.

=> Fast emulsion (with large grains)
 Making the Film Emulsion

c) Washing

 After ripening, emulsion is chilled to form thick gel.

 This gel is shredded.

 It is washed with water that remove KNO3 and excess KBr by

diffusion process.
 Making the Film Emulsion

d) Digestion
 Shredded and washed emulsion is re-heated to further increase
its sensitivity.

 Re-heating also make the emulsion liquid and suitable to spread

on the film base.
 Few Additives

 Preservative – Phenol as bacteriocide

 Silver iodide – To extend sensitivity towards blue range.
 Some dyes may extend Colour sensitivity further
 Glycerin to make the emulsion pliable
 Saponin – To make the emulsion receptive to the processing
chemicals
 Alcohol – To prevent frothing during coating
 Photographic Vs Radiographic Film
Characteristic Photographic film Radiographic film
Mode of image capture By reflected light By penetrated/ transmitted
light

Emulsion layer On one side Either On one side or both

Speed Slow Fast

Grain size Small Large

Resolving power 1000 lines/mm 6-10 lines/mm

Irradiation by Light only Light as well as x-ray

Noncurl back layer Always present Absent in double coated

 Single coated Vs Double Coated
Characteristic Single coated Double coated

Emulsion layer One side Both side

Radtation dose More Less

Noncurl back layer Present Absent

Radiographic detail More Less

Average gradient (G) Very less more

Parallax effect No yes

Contrast Less more

 Screen Vs Non-Screen Film
CHARACTERISTICS DIRECT EXPOSURE FILM INDIRECT EXPOSURE
FILM

Exposed with Only by x-rays Mainly by vissible light

Used Without Screen With screen
Emulsion layer Thick Thin
Image formation In deep superficialy
Processing time more less
Resolution more less
Characteristic curve No apprent shoulder region in useful Shoulder region within useful
density range density range

Screen artifact no May possible

Exposure dose more less
Used in Orbit and extremities radiography. General radiography
Also in Industrial Radiography
 Types of Radiographic Films

 Screen films most commonly used.

 Screen film used with intensifying screens.
 Single emulsion- emulsion on one side of base.
 Double emulsion used with two screens.
 Direct exposure film or non-screen film.
 Special purpose films
 Types of Radiographic Films

Special Film Types

 Direct exposure film: used without intensifying screen.
 were used for small body parts.
 Requires 10 to 100 times more exposure. The emulsion is
thicker than screen film.
 Renders excellent detail. No longer used.
 Types of Radiographic Films

Mammography Film:
 Only single emulsion film currently used in modern
radiography.
Laser Film:
 It is high-contrast single-emulsion film with extremely fine
grain .
 Used in with a laser printer for digital radiography, CT and
MRI.
 Types of Radiographic Films

Subtraction Film:
 used in angiography to domsubtraction where the bone is
removed for better visualization of the arteries.
Spot film:
 Special roll film of 70 to 105 mm width used in fluoroscopy.
 Can be processed in x-ray film processor.
Cine film:
 35 mm black & white film supplied in rolls of 100 and 500 ft
 Used in coronary angiography.
 Requires motion picture film processor.
 Types of Radiographic Films

 On the basis of Light sensitive coating

Types of Radiographic Films

a)MONOCHROMATIC FILMS

b) ORTHOCHROMATIC FILMS
Types of Radiographic Films

c)PANCHROMATIC
FILMS
 Types of Radiographic Films

On the Basis of Film Speed:

 Film Speed Refers to the relative sensitivity of the film to a
given amount of radiation.
 Faster film requires less exposure but produces grainy images.
 Standard or Par Speed Film.
 Fast Speed Films
 Ultrafast Films
 Screen Film Factors

Main factors to be considered when selecting film

a) Contrast & Speed
b) Crossover
c) Spectral matching
d) Reciprocity Law
e) Safelights
 Contrast and Speed

Contrast:
 Contrast of a film depends on its latitude.
 Latitude is the range of exposure techniques that produce an
acceptable image.
 Latitude is inversely proportional to contrast.
 High contrast film has low latitude with small uniform grains.
 Medium contrast film has medium latitude
 Low contrast film has high latitude with larger grains.
 Contrast and Speed

Speed:
 It is the sensitivity of film to x-rays and light.
 The size and shape of the silver halide crystals are the main
factors that determine speed.
 Faster speed films are almost always double emulsion.
 Light spectrum from screens must match to
 achieve optimum speed.
 Crossover Effect

 Crossover effect is the exposure of an emulsion by light from

the opposite radiographic intensifying screen.
 Crossover causes blurring of the image.
 Can be reduced by:
 Tabular grains---flat, large surface area to volume ratio
 Addition of a light absorbing dye in crossover control layer
Crossover Effect
 Spectral Matching
 The most important consideration in selecting screen film is
spectral absorption matching.
 The material in the screen will determine the color of light
emitted by the screen.
 Special dyes in the film are used to match the screen to the film.
 Calcium Tungstate screens emit blue and blue violet light-
Replaced by Rare earth screens.
 Rare earth screens emit ultraviolet, blue, green and red light.
 If the light spectrum does not match, there will be a significant
loss of speed along with increased patient dose.
 Reciprocity Law
 In radiography, it is generally assumed that the total exposure of
a film depends only on the total quantity of radiation (mAs) and
not on the exposure time.
 This is known as the reciprocity law.
Reciprocity law:
Exposure=Intensity x Time =Constant Optical Density.
 The reciprocity law is true for film exposed directly to x-rays.
 It fails when film is exposed to light from radiographic
intensifying screens.
 Reciprocity law failure is important when the exposure times are
very long (as in mammography)or very short (angiography).
 The result is a loss of speed.
 Safelights

Safelights
 Working with film in the darkroom requires special lighting to
avoid exposure of the film.
 Filters are used to avoid exposure of the film.
 An amber filter can be used for blue sensitive film only.
 A red filter is used for blue-green sensitive film.
 The color is not the only concern, the wattage of the bulb (Typ.
15 W) and distance between the lamp and work surface is also
very important.
Safelights
 Storage of Films

STORAGE AREAS :-
 The hospital or x-ray department
 The dark room
 The imaging room

 Film packs must be placed in vertical position (date wise) & not
horizontally to prevent static marks caused by discharge energy
of static electricity due to pressure.
 Care and Protection of Films

 Improper handling of the film will result in poor image quality

due to artifacts.
 Avoid bending, creasing or rough handling of the film.
 Avoid sharp objects contacting the film.
 Hands must be clean and dry.
 Avoid hand creams, lotions or water free hand cleaners.
 Static electricity or a dirty processor can cause artifacts.
 Film is sensitive to heat and humidity.
 Heat and humidity causes fog or a loss of contrast.
 Film should be stored at less than 20º C (68ºF)
 Humidity should be between 40% and 60%.
 Care and Protection of Film

Films should be protected from

 Physical damage
 Light
 High temperature
 High relative humidity
 Harmful gases and fumes
 X-rays and radioactive source
 Fire and theft
 Marks on Film

 Pressure marks:-Due to careless handling there is occurrence of

crimp marks, seen in crescent shaped on the film. If it is black
than it is after exposure and if white than it is before exposure.
 Static electric marks:-Due to sudden pulling of film in dry
condition. There is electric spark that results crown or tree-like
mark on film.
 Hanger marks:-due to dried up chemical in channel type of
hangers.
 Finger marks:-by contaminated hand dark room technician.