EXTERNA

L
MEMORYARROYO
GIMOROS
RAMOS
OUTLINE OF THE TOPIC
RAI
Magnetic Disk
•
D
Magnetic Read & • RAID Level 0
Write Mechanisms • RAID Level 1
• Data Organization and • RAID Level 2
Formatting • RAID Level 3
• Physical • RAID Level 4
Characteristics • RAID Level 5
• Disk Performance • RAID Level 6
Parameters
OUTLINE OF THE TOPIC

Solid State Drives

• Flash Memory
• SSD Compared to HDD
• SSD Organization
• Practical Issues Magnetic Tape
Optical Memory
• Compact Disk
• Digital Versatile Disk
• High-Definition Optical Disk
MAGNETIC DISK
A disk is a circular platter
constructed of nonmagnetic
material, called the substrate,
coated with a magnetizable
material
Traditionally, the substrate has been an aluminum or
aluminum alloy material. More recently, glass substrates
have been introduced.
• Improvement in the uniformity of the
magnetic film surface to increase disk
reliability
• A significant reduction in overall surface
defects to help reduce read-write errors
• Ability to support lower fly heights
• Better stiffness to reduce disk dynamics
• Greater ability to withstand shock and
damage
MAGNETIC READ AND WRITE
MECHANISM
 Data are recorded on and later
retrieved from the disk via a
conducting coil named the head.

WRITE HEAD READ HEAD

The write mechanism exploits the fact that
The read head consists of a partially
electricity flowing through a coil produces a
shielded magnetoresistive (MR) sensor.
magnetic field. Electric pulses are sent to the
The MR material has an electrical
write head, and the resulting magnetic
resistance that depends on the direction
patterns are recorded on the surface below,
of the magnetization of the medium
with different patterns for positive and
moving under it.
negative currents
DATA
ORGANIZATIO
N AND
FORMATTING
 PARTS

TRACKS GAPS
The organization of data on the Adjacent tracks are separated.
platter in a concentric set of rings This prevents, or at least
minimizes, errors due to
misalignment of the head or
simply interference of magnetic
fields
SECTORS
Data are transferred to and from
the disk
The information can then be scanned at the same rate by rotating
the disk at a fixed speed, known as the
constant angular velocity
ADVANTAGE
Individual blocks of data can be directly addressed by track and
sector

DISADVANTAGE
The amount of data that can be stored on the long outer
tracks is the only same as what can be stored on the short
inner tracks
EXAMPLE OF DISK FORMATTING
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Head Motion Platters
• Fixed head (one per track) • Single platter
• Movable head (one per surface) • Multiple platter

Disk Portability Head mechanism

• Nonremovable disk • Contact (floppy)
• Removable disk • Fixed gap
• Aerodynamic gap (Winchester)
Sides
• Single sided
• Double sided
Some disk drives accommodate
multiple platters stacked
vertically a fraction of an inch
apart. Multiple arms are provided
Multiple–platter disks employ a
movable head, with one read-
write head per platter surface. All
of the heads are mechanically
fixed so that all are at the same
distance from the center of the
disk and move together.
 DISK PERFORMANCE
PARAMETERS
The actual details
of disk I/O
operation depend
on the computer
system, the
operating system,
and the nature of
the I/O channel
and disk controller
hardware
SEEK TIME ROTATIONAL DELAY
is the time required to move Disks, other than floppy
the disk arm to the required disks, rotate at speeds
track. It turns out that this is ranging from 3600 rpm (for
a difficult quantity to pin handheld devices such as
down. This is consist of two digital cameras) up to, as of
components: this writing, 20,000 rpm; at
this latter speed, there is one
•
revolution per 3 ms. Thus, on
The initial start up time
• The time taken to traverse the the average, the rotational
tracks that have to be crossed once delay will be 1.5 ms
the access arm is up to speed
TRANSFER TIME
The transfer time to or from the disk depends on the
rotation speed of the disk in the following fashion
 RAID
RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks). The
RAID scheme consists of seven levels, zero through
six. These levels do not imply a hierarchical
relationship but designate different design
architectures that share three common characteristics:

1. RAID is a set of physical disk drives viewed by the

operating system as a single logical drive

2. Data are distributed across the physical drives of an array in a

scheme known as striping, described subsequently.

3. Redundant disk capacity is used to store parity information, which

guarantees data recoverability in case of a disk failure
 LEVEL 0 (Non-redundant)

• Not a true member of RAID – no redundancy!

• Data is striped across all the disk in array
 Each disk is divided into strips which may be blocks, sectors, or some other
convenient unit
 Strips from a file are mapped round-robin to each array member
 A set of logically consecutive strips that maps exactly one strip to each array
member is a stripe
• If a single I/O request consist of multiple contiguous strips, up to n strips can be
handled in parallel, greatly reducing I/O transfer time
 LEVEL 1 (Mirrored)

• Only level where redundancy is achieved by simply duplicating all the data
• Data striping is used as in RAID 0, but each logical strip is mapped to two separate physical disks
• A read request can be serviced by disk with minimal seek and latency time
• Write requests require updating 2 disks, but both can be updated in parallel, so no penalty
• When a drive fails, data may be accessed from other drive
• High cost for high performance
 Usually used for highly critical data
 Best performance when requests are mostly reads
 LEVEL 2 (Redundancy through
Hamming Code)

• Uses parallel access – all member disks participate in every I/O request
• Uses small strips, often as small as a single byte or word
• An error-correcting code (usually Hamming) is calculated across corresponding bits on
each data disk, and the bits of the code are stored in the corresponding bit positions on
multiple parity disks.
• Useful in an environment where a lot of disk errors are expected
 Usually expensive overkill.
 Disks are so reliable that this is never implemented
 LEVEL 3 (Bit-Interleaved Parity)

• Uses parallel access – all member disks participate in every I/O request
• Uses small strips, often as small as a single byte or word
• Uses only a single parity disk, no matter how large the disk array
 A simple parity bit is calculated and stored
 In the event of a failure in one disk, the data on that disk can be reconstructed
from the data on the others
 Until the bad disk is replaced, data can still be accessed (at a performance
penalty) in reduced mode
 LEVEL 4 (Block-Level Parity)

• Uses an independent access technique

 Each member disk operates independently, so separate I/O requests can be satisfied in
parallel
 More suitable for apps that require high I/O request rates rather than high data
transfer rates
• Relatively large strips
• Has a write penalty for small writes, but not for larger ones (because parity can be calculated from
values on other strips)
• In any case, every write involves the parity disk
 LEVEL 5 (Block-Level Distributed
Part)

• Like Level 4, but distributes parity strips across all disks, removing the parity bottleneck
 LEVEL 6 (Dual Redundancy)

• Two different parity calculations are carried out and stored in

separate blocks on different disks
RAID LEVELS
SOLID STATE
DRIVES
A solid state drive is a memory device made
with solid state components that can be used as a
replacement
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 FLASH MEMORY
Flash memory is a type of semiconductor memory that
has been around for a number of years and is used in many
consumer electronic products, including smart phones, GPS
devices, MP3 players, digital cameras, and USB devices. In
recent years, the cost and performance of flash memory
has evolved to the point where it is feasible to use flash
memory drives to replace HDDs
 TYPES OF FLASH MEMORY
NAND FLASH MEMORY NOR FLASH MEMORY

● The basic unit is 16 or 32 bits, and the ● The basic unit of access is a bit, and the
logical organization resembles NAND logical organization resembles a NOR logic
devices device
● Reads and writes in small blocks ● Provides high-speed random access
● It is used in USB flash drives, memory cards ● It can read and write data to specific
(in digital cameras, MP3 locations, and can reference and retrieve a
● players, etc.), and in SSDs single byte
● Provides higher bit density than NOR and ● Used to store cell phone operating system
greater write speed code and on Windows computers for the
BIOS program that runs at startup
 SSD COMPARED to HDD
As the cost of flash-based SSDs has dropped and the performance and bit density
increased, SSDs have become increasingly competitive with HDDs. SSDs have the
following advantages over HDDs:

• High-performance input/output operations per second (IOPS):

Significantly increases performance I/O subsystems
• Durability: Less susceptible to physical shock and vibration.
• Longer lifespan: SSDs are not susceptible to mechanical wear.
• Lower power consumption: SSDs use as little as 2.1 watts of power per
drive, considerably less than comparable-size HDDs.
• Quieter and cooler running capabilities: Less floor space required, lower
energy costs, and a greener enterprise
• Lower access times and latency rates: Over 10 times faster than the
spinning disks in an HDD
SSD ORGANIZATION
In addition to the interface to the host system, the SSD
contains the following components:

• Controller: Provides SSD device level

interfacing and firmware execution
• Addressing: Logic that performs the selection
function across the flash memory components.
• Data buffer/cache: High speed RAM memory
components used for speed matching and to
increased data throughput
• Error correction: Logic for error detection and
correction.
• Flash memory components: Individual NAND
flash chips
 PRACTICAL ISSUES

There are two practical issues peculiar to SSDs

that are not faced by HDDs.

• SDD performance has a tendency to slow down as the

device is used
• Becomes unusable after a certain number of writes
 OPTICAL
MEMORY
In 1983, one of the most successful consumer
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CD OPERATION
 CD-ROM BLOCK FORMAT

Data on the CD-ROM are organized as a sequence of blocks.

• Sync: The sync field identifies the beginning of a block. It
consists of a byte of all 0s, 10 bytes of all 1s, and a byte of
all 0s.
• Header: The header contains the block address and the mode
byte. Mode 0 specifies a blank data field; mode 1 specifies
the use of an error-correcting code and 2048 bytes of data;
mode 2 specifies 2336 bytes of user data with no error-
correcting code.
• Data: User data.
• Auxiliary: Additional user data in mode 2. In mode 1, this is
a 288-byte error correcting code
HIGH-DEFINITION OPTICAL
DISK

• To store high-definition
videos and to provide
significantly greater storage
capacity
• The higher bit density is
achieved by using a laser
with a shorter wavelength
 HIGH-DEFINITION OPTICAL
DISK
Two competing disk formats and
technologies

• HD DVD
can store 15 GB on a single layer on a single side

• Blu-ray DVD*
can store 25 GB on a single layer
BD-ROM, BD-R, BD-RE
 MAGNETIC TAPE
Tapes used to be
Tape systems The medium is packaged as
use the same flexible open reels that
reading and polyester tape have to be
recording coated with threaded
techniques as magnetizable through a
disk systems. material second spindle
for use
 MAGNETIC TAPE
1. The recording of data in this form is
referred to as parallel recording
2. Serial recording in which data are laid
out as a sequence of bits along each
track
3. The typical recording technique used in
serial tapes is referred to as serpentine
recording
4. Magnetic tape was the first kind of
secondary memory. It is still widely
used as the lowest-cost, slowest-speed
member of the memory hierarchy