Color measurement &

communication
 Chapter 1
Fundamentals of Color Science
1.1 Definition of Color
 What is color?

 Color is defined as visual sensation arising from the

stimulation of retina of the eye -according to
committee on Colorimetry of Optical America.

 Thus it is defined as psychophysical -psychological

response to a physical stimulus.
 ...continued...
 Color may have different meaning to different
people:
 To chemist it may be a chemical compound, a dye or
pigment;
 To physicist it is a scattering and absorption of light or
reflectance spectra of the object;
 To physiologist it is a measurable electrical activity of
the nerves;
 To psychologist it is a complex process in brain of
interpreting the nerve signal.
 To artist and others it is the means to create sensation
in the mind of the observer: red & yellow colors create
the sensation of warmness while green & blue are
associated with feeling of coolness.
 1.2 Perception of Color
 Perception of color involves a series events which
are interdisciplinary in nature (physics, chemistry,
physiology and psychology)-Task 1 : for peer
group 1)- How perception of color explained by
above mentioned disciplines).

 Perception of color includes source of light, object

that is illuminated and the eye and brain that
perceive the color.
Fig.1.1 Perception of color
 1.2.1 Source of Light

 Light is a form of energy and propagates in the

form of electromagnetic waves(EMW).

 Wavelength, is an important characteristics of EMW

it varies from fraction of nanometre (nm) ( 1nm=
10 -7cms ) to kilometers.
 The characteristics of EMW changes with
wavelengths, due to this reason they are identified
by different names: gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet
rays, visible rays, microwave rays, and radio-wave
rays as shown in Figure 1.2.
 380-450 violet
450-480 blue
480-510 blue-green
510- 550 green
550-570 yellow-green
570-590 yellow
590-630 orange
630-750 red
Fig.1.2 Electromagnetic spectrum -visible spectrum extends from 380-750 nm
 ...continued...
 Source of light characterized by the relative power
distribution at diffident wavelengths.
 Light sources may be :
 Incandescent lamp;
 Arc lamp;
 Fluorescent lamp.

 Spectral power distribution of sources like candle

light, sunlight and incandescent lamp are
continuous as shown in Figure 1.3.
Fig.1.3 spectral power distribution of natural & artificial
light sources
 ...continued...

 On the other hand, the energy radiated by

mercury arc lamp is concentrated in a narrow
band of wavelengths as shown in Figure 1.4.
This is called as line spectrum.
Fig.1.4 Spectral power distribution of mercury arc
lamp -source radiate energy at specific wavelengths.
 ...continued...

 The relative spectral power distribution of

fluorescent lamp are continuous with
superimposed lines at certain wavelengths.
Fig. 1.5Spectral power distribution of cool fluorescent
lam- continuous spectra is super imposed by line
spectra.
 ...continued...
 Normally the light where the radiations
corresponding to any wavelength do not
predominate is called white light.

 If we examine carefully, one may consider candle

light as yellow and skylight as blue.

 This is obvious from Figure 1.3 as candle radiates

more energy in yellow region of spectrum and
skylight consists of more energy in wavelength
range of blue.
 ...continued...
 The perceptual description of color depends
on:
 Spectral power distribution of the source;
 Energy reflected by the object at different wavelengths and;
 Spectral sensitivity of the eye.

 Therefore, the change of spectral power distribution

of illuminating beam will also change the perceptual
description of the color of the object.
 The object which may be bright orange under
tungsten lamp may become dark brown in mercury
lamp.
Fig. 1.6 Color change of the object under different
sources
 1.2.2 Object
 The illuminating radiations of the source are
modified by the object through physical processes
such as:
 Transmission;
 Reflection;
 Absorbency and;
 Scattering.
 The relative proportion of these processes depend on the
characteristics of the material.
 Transmission- emerging light is in the same direction as
incident light.
 The type of reflection from object depends on the nature of
the surfaces mainly classified as polished and matte surfaces.
 ...Continued...

 The reflection from polished(Mirror like) is called as

specular reflection- it depends on angle of incident
and refractive index of the material of the object
with respective to its surroundings.

 The specularly reflected radiations do not carry

information's about the color of the object.
 E.g. Ceramic black tile seen by secularly reflected radiations
will paper white and bright.
 In case of matte or non-glossy surfaces the
reflected radiations originate due to scattering and
absorption of incident light by the colorants in the
object- gives rise to diffuse radiations.
 ...continued...
 The diffuse radiations carry the information's
about the color of the object.

 The object we deal in textile and paper

industries are diffusely reflect the incident
light as shown in Figure 1.7

 Therefore, for true assessment of the

specular components of reflected light ,which
gives rise to glossy should be excluded.
Fig.1.7 Specular and diffuse reflection from a
pigmented specimen
 ...continued...
 The locations peak in spectral reflectance curve determines the
hue of the object.

 The spectral reflection of curves of achromatic (white, black &

gray colors) and chromatic objects are shown in Figure 1.9.

 The object exhibits absorption peak a definite wavelength

depending upon its color.

 The spectral reflectance curves of achromatic objects do

not exhibit any peak.

 The reflectance of curves of the red color objects with

increase in concentration from S1, S2 to S3 shown in Figure
1.10.

Figure 1.9 spectral reflectance's of chromatic and
achromatic objects
Fig.1.10 spectral reflectance of objects with the same
hue but different concentration.
 ...continued ...
 In scattering process light travels in many
directions other than incident directions.

 When sufficient scattering occurs -it is said to

diffuse reflection, such objects are said to be
translucent.
e.g. Opal glass or plastics
 The amount of light scattered depends on relative

refractive index and particle size of colorants- see

Figure 1.11.
 Task 2 - How you can relate particle size of

colorants with amount of scattering light?

Figure 1.11 Schematic plot representing relationships
b/n particle size & its scattering power for a given
refractive index.
 ...continued...
 Light scattering by particles also depends on
difference in refractive indices of the colorant and
the surroundings( i.e. liquid in which colorant are
dispersed).

 If their refractive indices are identical no light will

be scattered.
1.2.3 Observer
The Eye
 The function of the eye is to impart to an observer
information about surrounding world.

 The sensation of color and vision is a function of physical

quality of light, physiological process in retina and brain
and psychological interpretation of physiological process
by the brain.

 All these operations are carried out at lightening speed

and sensation of vision is experienced almost instantly.

 The main features of the human eye are shown in Figure

1.12
Fig.1.12: The sketch of horizontal cross- section of the
human eye
 ...continued...
 The light enters the eye through the cornea.

 Iris immediately followed by cornea -fibrous

membrane with central circular aperture which
contracts or expands depending on light level.

 The eye lens - situated behind iris.

 The lens along with cornea has refracting power to

focus the image of the object on retina.

 The focal length of the lens alters through the operation

of cilliary muscles such that sharp image of the object is
focused on retina.
 ...continued...
 The regions behind and in front of lens are filled with
transparent media known as vitreous and aqueous humor
respectively.
 The light collected by eye lens is focused on retina.

 Over the retina surface, there are nerve endings called as

rods and cones from their shape - contain photosensitive
materials.

 The rods detect the light but have no ability to specify the
color. Color is detected by cones.
 There on average 130 millions of rods in retina.
 There is a small pit at the centre of retina called as fovea
located on the visual axis of the eye and has a diameter of 1mm.
 .
 ...continued...
 The fovea subtends an angle of 2o in the visual field.

 The cones are situated in fovea region only.

 There are 7 millions of cones in the eye, mostly tightly

packed in fovea.

 There are three types of cones characterised by their

spectral sensitivity curves, known as blue, green and red
sensitive cones- often they are referred as long,
medium and short wavelength cones.
 ...continued...
 The short wavelength cones record from violet to blue,
medium wavelength cones record from green to yellow
and long wavelength cones record from yellow to red
colors.
 The sensation of color depends on the degree of
stimulation of the cones by light.

 If either of cones are absent or defective ,it results into

defective color vision.

 The eye is not equally sensitive over entire visible

spectrum- for eye the brightest part of the spectrum is at
wavelength of 550 nm i.e. Yellow-green regions.
Fig.1.13 spectral response of the human eye
 ...continued...
 Cones require higher level of illumination as compared to
rods.
 At low light , the shape of the object can be distinguished
- it is said to be scotopic vision.

 When the color can be just detected (and rods have yet not
flooded) -it is said to be mesopic vision.

 At high light level when rods & cones are sufficiently

stimulated - it is said to be photopic vision.

 The rods and cones are connected to fibres of the optic

nerve by which the signal is transmitted to brain.
 ...continued...
 In the peripheral part of the retina each nerve ending is
connected is connected to many rods and cones situated in
the same area.

 In the central part of the retina i.e. , fovea region instead of

bunching found in rod region, the cones are connected
separately by each fiber - this are of the eye provides high
resolving power and gives distinct vision.

 At one point in retina , the fibers collect into a single

cluster - this point do not contain light sensitive cells, and
blind spot as shown in Fig,1.12.

 The signal generated by rods and cones is transmitted to

brain through optic nerves by complicated physiological
processes .
1.3 Mechanism of color vision
 The rods are distributed over the entire surface of retina
and cones are concentrated in a region of fovea.

 When the rods and cones are exposed to light ; the

photochemical r/n is initiated and electrical impulse is
generated.
 The photosensitive material in light sensitive cells
decomposes and regenerate continuously and almost
instantly.

 Often the exposure to intense light produces fatigue

and it takes appreciable time to generate- this is the
reason why a person become momentary blind when he
looks at dazing light.
 ...continued...
 The color perceived by a person depends on degree of
stimulation of the three types of cones.

 If red, green and blue cones are equally stimulated the

sensation of gray to white created.

 If blue and red cones are simultaneously excited the

sensation of purple is created.

 The impression of yellow is created if red and green

cones are stimulated at the same time.

 Thus the resulting sensation of color is determined by

laws of additive color mixing and degree of stimulation
of the cones.
 ...continued...
 The electrical signal, generated due to photochemical
rxn in rods and cones is probably amplified within the
receptors before it is passed to bipolar and ganglion
cells.
 At some point in ganglion layer the electrical signal is
converted into nerve impulse which is transmitted to
brain through the fibers of optic nerve.

 This generation of electrical signal and nerve impulse is

a physiological process.
 The electrical impulse set u in rods and cones are
programmed and sorted out somewhere on the way to
brain.
 The exact mechanism of coding is not known, but some
form of message is conveyed to brain by optic nerve.
 ...continued...
 The message from rods convey about light(i.e. Shape,
movement of object, etc.), while the message from the cones
tell about the color of the object under observation.

 The message are decoded and coupled with memories stored in

the brain and the final consciousness of color and vision is
experienced.

 This process of interpretation of signal and retrieving

information from the nerve impulse in brain is a psychological
process.
 Thus process of color and color vision initiated by physical
stimulus process through physiological process and finally ends
with psychological process.
 All the stages in the perception of color and vision takes
place almost instantly.
1.4 Defects of color Vision

 Normal color vision is trichromatic - color vision using three

types of cones.
 An observer with normal color vision is said to have
trichromatic color vision or simply trichromat- in such
observer the three cones are functioning properly in complete
harmony.

 Three are other observers who poorly or can not identify the
color discrimination- they are said to have defective color
vision or color blind.
 The brightest part of equal energy spectrum for normal color
vision observer is b/n 540 & 570 nm ( i.e. Yellowish-green) -
this gives average wavelength of 555 nm.
 ...continued...
 The defective color vision or color blindness refers to
abnormal physiological conditions in the eye.
 The are there three main forms of abnormal color vision

system:
1. Monochromatism- total color blindness
 observer who can not identify any color called monochromatic or
only identify light and dark.
 The monochromat tends to have phophobia ( fear to light) & they
would like to remain in dark.
 Luminous efficiency of eye for monochromat has maximum at
520nm.
2. Dichromatism - observes in this category can make
distinction of only yellow- blue or red-green color sets.
3. Anomalous trichromatism - are intermediate b/n
dichromate & normal trichromats
1.5 Color Vision Tests & Awareness about Color Vision

 The person who can not distinguish the colors like red-
green or yellow -blue is said to be color blind or having
defective color vision.
 Color blindness occurs if one type of cones is defective
or missing.
 Some other disorders in the eye or in nerves path ways
b/n eye & brain cause defects in color vision.

 About 8% of males and 0.5 % women are found to have

defective color vision.

 The most widely used method to test color vision is the

charts- containing mathematical numbers or figures
printed with dots of different colors and also
surrounded by dots of other colors.
 ...continued...
 The person with normal color vision can become color
blind due to deficiency of vitamins or after certain
diseases.
 The toxic and poisonous fumes of certain chemicals like
carbon dioxide also depresses the sensitivity of cones
resulting in to color vision defects.
 Others like :
o lead poisoning
o spinal anesthesia
o excess use of tobacco and alcohol
o severe head injury in accident - develops color vision defects.
o Color deficiency is also hereditary and can be passed by
mother to son.
1.5 Color Mixing Laws
 There are two types of color mixing laws:
 additive color mixing law and
 subtractive color mixing law

 Additive color mixing was first carried out by

Newton, 1730 using collared light

 Subtractive color was first recognized by Htlmholtz

1852.

 In industrial applications like, textiles, paint, paper

and plastic the desired color are produced by
mixing two or more colorants.
 1.5.1Additive Color Mixing
 Additive color mixing occurs when two or more
lights are added by focusing them on a white screen.
 Red, Blue and Green are used as primaries for to
produce various colors by additive mixing.

 The primary colors are independent- that the

mixture of the two colors will not produce the third
primary color.
 Red + Green = yellow
 Green + Blue = cyan( blue-green)
 Blue + Red = purple (magenta)
 Red + Green + Blue = White
Fig. 1.14 schematic diagram of additive color mixing
 ...continued...
 By adding the lights from three sources ( red, green and
blue) ,the mixing of light in various proportions results
into various results.

 In drama theatres the light effects are produced by

mixing light from two or three light sources.
Methods of color mixing :
(1) two or more lights are projected on the screen
successively and rapidly
(2) Maxwell method- achieved by rotating color papers
which cut precisely into pieces of various sizes and
mounted as segments on circular disk- then additive
color effect can be seen in proportion to the sizes of
each segment.
 ...continued...
 By closely printing paper with primary colors and the
eye can not resolve them separately and will give the
resultant color formed by additive mixing

1.5.2 Subtractive Color Mixing

 Subtractive mixing of colors occurs when one or more
spectral components are removed from the incident
light.
 The removal of part of incident energy can occur by the
process of absorption and scattering .
 When the subtraction is made by absorption only ,it is
called simple subtractive mixing.
 When the light is removed by scattering and
absorption , it is called complex subtractive mixing.
 ...continued...
 The color of transparent materials like solutions
and glass occur due to simple subtraction of light
energy by absorption.
 Yellow, Magenta and Cyan are the most commonly
used primaries in subtractive color mixing.
 The subtractive primaries are obtained by removing
Blue, Green and Red lights from white light.
 White - Blue = Yellow
 White _ Green = Magenta
 White - Red = Cyan
 This can be achieved by using broad band filters
known as subtractive primary filters as shown in
Figure 1. 15.
Fig.15 : Absorption of light by single subtractive color
filters
 ...continued...

 When two subtractive filters are combined ,the

primaries for additive color mixing results as
shown in Figure 1.16.

 The addition of subtractive primaries will produce

the additive color mixing primaries of Red, Green
and Blue.
 Yellow + Cyan = Green
 Cyan + magenta = Blue
 Magenta + yellow = Red
 Yellow + Magenta + Cyan = Black
Fig.16 absorption of light by pairs of subtractive color filters
Fig.17 schematic diagram of subtractive color mixing
 ...continued...
 The production of resultant colors in subtractive
color mixing can be made using Beer's law.
 According to this law the absorption of light by
specimen is resulted by equation:

log = 1/T = abc =A

Where; T= transmission
a = absorptivity of the material
b = path length
c = concentration

Note : the law applied at single wavelength only

 ...continued...
 For a given material the absorbance, A proportional to
concentration.

 For mixture of colorants the total absorbance is equal to

the absorbance of individual component:
A = A1 +A2 + A3 + ....

 The primaries of additive and subtractive color mixing

can be represented by the hue circle as shown in Figure
1.18.
 The results of additive and subtractive primaries mixing
can be best remembered by realizing that the pairs of
additive primaries generate the subtractive primaries
and the pairs of subtractive primaries generate the
additive primaries.
Fig 1.18: hue circle representing primaries for additive
and subtractive color mixing
 ...continued...
 When light energy is removed by absorption and
scattering- it is called complex subtractive color
mixing (Billmeyer & Saltzman, 1981).

 Complex subtractive color mixing involves the

simultaneous absorption and scattering of light.

 For technological application the most widely used

approximate equation for complex subtractive
color mixing is given by Kubelica and Munk ,1931.

F(R) = K/S = (1-R)2 /2R

 ...continued...
 K and S are ; Kubelica and Munk absorption and
scattering coefficients
 The function forms the basis for color matching for
industrial products.
 The colors seen of various industrial products like paint,
plastic, textiles ,paper and many other are due to complex
subtractive color mixing.

 For opaque objects, the complex subtractive color mixing

give rise to diffuse reflectance

 The diffuse reflectance arising because of complex

subtractive color mixing is not proportional to
concentration of colorants , but some function of
reflectance factor (R) is proportional to concentration.