Dominant Approaches

and Ideas in the Social

Sciences
 I. Empirical-Analytical Approaches in the
Social Sciences

Microlevel Approaches in the Social

Sciences
Rational Choice Theory (RCT)
is a powerful tool in making sense of why people
act or behave in the way they do. Nonetheless, it
is not a comprehensive theory that can fully
account for one's behavior or action. According
to Elster 1989 (in Ward2002,65), "the essence of
rational choice theory is that 'when faced with
several courses of action, people usually do what
they believe is likely to have the best overall
outcome." lndividuals' actions are based on their
preferences, beliefs, and feasible strategies
(Ward 2002).
 THE MEANING OF POWER

Three pillars anchored on individual

actions:
1.strategies or courses of action open and
available to them.
2.their preferences over the end-states to
which combinations of actions chosen by the
various players lead.
3.their beliefs about important parameters
such as others' preferences.
 SOURCES OF POWER

Four mode groups of Criticisms on RCT

according to WARD:
1. the heretics' critique who wish to emphasize bounded
rationality; 
2. the sociologists' critique of RCT's tendency to play
down social structure and holistic modes of
explanations; 
3. the psychologists'critique of RCT's main assumption
that individuals often act rationally
4. critique from mainstream political science on the basis
of the implausibility of the assumptions made and the
predictive failures of the model.
 RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY (RCT)

Simon believes that individuals use standard operating

procedures as a heuristic device and as a shorthand guide to
rational action. For Simon, an action is procedurally rational if
it is based on beliefs that are reasonable given the context the
actor is in.

"Herbert Simon"
 Symbolic Interactionism
Symbolic interactionism = is a sociological framework
that focuses on the different meanings individuals attach
to objects, peoples, and interactions as well as the
corresponding behaviors that reflect those meanings
and/or interpretations. 
George Herbert Mead
George Herbert Mead was an influential
figure in the field of symbolic
interactionism. Gestures, according to him,
are important in communication. Mead's
central concept is the self, "the part of an
individual's personality composed of self-
awareness and self-image"
 Symbolic Interactionism

Three overarching premises that constitute symbolic

interactionism:

• The first assumes that meaning is an important

element of human existence.
• A second premise asserts that people identify and
mold their unique symbolic reference through the
process of socialization.
• The third tenet of symbolic interactionism affirms
that there is a cultural dimension that intertwines
the symbolic "educational" development.
 Symbolic Interactionism

Two Critics of Symbolic Interactionism:

1. lnsiders' criticism focus on the method, and the
central concepts of symbolic interactionism,
particularly the ambiguity of major concepts used
particularly the concept of the "self.“
2. Outsiders'critique, on the other hand, highlights
the astructural bias in symbolic interactionism. This
bias refers to the claim that symbolic
interactionism's perspective is a historical,
noneconomic, and a limited view of social power
and social organization.
 Empirical-Analytical Approaches in the
Social Sciences (Macrolevel)
Structural Functionalism
• is "a framework for building a theory that
sees society as a complex system whose
parts work together to promote solidarity
and stability". Such parts of the whole
system may vary in terms of functions but
they are all related to each other.
• the goal is to maintain or keep the whole
system, at least in its present form. It follows
therefore that the working of one part would
have effects on the other parts.
 Structural Functionalism

Structural functionalism was developed by Talcott

Parsons in the 1930s under the influence of the works
of Max Weber and Emile Durkheim. lt emphasizes
social structure, "any relatively stable pattern of social
behavior'' and social functions, "the consequences of
any social pattern for the operation of society as a
whole". Examples of social structure are the family,
government, religion, education, and economy. Social
structure shapes our lives in various contexts such as
the family, the workplace, classroom, and community;
and all social structure functions to keep society going,
at least in its present form.
 Structural Functionalism

Robert Merton (1910-2003) expanded the

concept of social function by arguing that any
social structure may have many functions. He
distinguished between manifest functions, "the
recognized and intended consequences of any
social pattern" and latent functions, the
unrecognized and unintended consequences of
any social pattern." Merton recognized that the "Robert Merton"
effects or outcomes of social structure are not all
necessarily good and not necessarily good for
everyone. He coined the term "social
dysfunction“ - any social pattern that may disrupt
the operation of society.
 Structural Functionalism

The structural-functional approach built on the following

premises:
1. Within every social structure or system--politics, family,
organizations--each member of the system has a specific
function.
2. Those functions can be small or substantial, are dynamic in
nature (i.e., they can change), and work toward the same
purpose: to keep the system operational within its
environment.
3. Change is evident within any society or system; however for
the system to survive, it must adapt to that change in order to
maintain its equilibrium.
 Structural Functionalism

Four imperatives for societies to survive to maintain

equilibrium (AGIL):
 Adaptation: acquiring and mobilizing sufficient
resources so that the system can survive.
 Goal Attainment: setting and implementing goals
 Integration: maintaining solidarity or coordination
among the subunits of the system
 Latency: creating, preserving, and transmitting the
system's distinctive culture and values.
 Institutionalism

The institutional approach can be

understood as a subject matter, as a method,
and as a theory. As a subject matter, the
study of political institutions is central to the
identity of the discipline of political science.
"If there is any subject matter at all that
political scientist can claim exclusively for
their own, a subject matter that does not
require acquisition of the analytical tools of
sister fields and that sustains their claim to
autonomous existence, it is, of course,
formal-legal political structure". 
- Rhodes
 Institutionalism

Public administration, a sub-discipline within

political science, has the study of institutions
as its key characteristics.
William Robson, describes the dominant
approach in public administration as
institutional. As a method, the traditional or
classic institutional approach is "descriptive,
inductive, formal-legal, and historical-
comparative". As a theory, the  traditional or
classic institutional approach does not only
make statements about the causes and
consequences of political institutions. 
 Institutionalism

Critics of Institutionalism:
 Roy Macridis, a comparativist in political science,
critiques the approach's subject matter and
method while focusing on the study of
comparative government. The historical methods
and legal analysis of the classic institutional
approach are inadequate. 
 David Easton, the most influential critic of the
traditional study of politics, found the classic
institutional approach wanting on two grounds:
 Institutionalism

Critics of Institutionalism:
…
o First, the analysis of law and institutions could not explain policy
or power because it did not cover all the relevant variables.
o Second, 'hyperfactualism', or reverence for the fact, meant that
the political scientist suffered from 'theoretical malnutrition',
neglecting 'the general framework within which these facts could
acquire meaning.
 Other critics noted that the approach was concerned with
the institutions of government, and yet operated with a
restricted understanding of its subject matter.
 Institutionalism

By the 1980s, the traditional or classic institutional

approach has declined in its importance in political
science. In contrast to the traditional or classic
institutional approach, now referred to as the "old
institutionalism", new institutionalism has a much
broader, yet sophisticated definition of its subject
matter.
 Empirical-Analytical Approaches in the
Social Sciences (Interdisciplinary)

Human-environment system approach

The History of HES:
• The HES approach conceptualizes a mutualism
between human and environmental systems.
• The human and the environmental system are
conceived as two different systems that exist in
essential dependencies and reciprocal
endorsement.
• The term human systems, meaning social systems
ranging from society to individuals, has been used
since the time of the ancient Greeks.
 Empirical-Analytical Approaches in the
Social Sciences (Interdisciplinary)

Human-environment system approach

The History of HES
• Human systems are supposed to have a
memory, language, foresight, consciousness etc.
In contrast to the concept of human or social
systems, the term environmental systems arose
late in the early 19th century, even though
Hippocrates had already dealt with
environmental impacts on human health in
early medicine in 420 BC.
 Empirical-Analytical Approaches in the
Social Sciences (Interdisciplinary)

Human-environment system approach

• The HE impact chain was initially examined from
the human perspective. In the early 18th
century, forest engineers investigated how legal
or economic restrictions affect the texture of
forests agricultural, forest. Resource economics
evolved in the early 18th century and focused
on the question of how agricultural and forest
yields can be sustainably or most efficiently
obtained (Goodwin, 1977).
 Empirical-Analytical Approaches in the
Social Sciences (Interdisciplinary)

Human-environment system approach

• From the environmental research
perspective, the H impact chain has quite
a different focus, namely how human
activities affect the environment or
environmental equilibrium and how
these impacts can be mitigated.
 Empirical-Analytical Approaches in the
Social Sciences (Interdisciplinary)

Human-environment system approach

• Mutual dependency, reciprocity, and the H
impact chains can be approached from the
environmental as well as from the human
perspective. The former looks at optimizing
environmental quality by integrating human
models into ecosystem analysis. The latter
investigates the impact of regulatory
mechanisms on the state of the environment
when taking an anthropogenic perspective.
 Empirical-Analytical Approaches in the
Social Sciences (Interdisciplinary)

Six basic principles, which begins from six basic

assumptions from the modelling of  HES:
1. Conceive human and environmental systems as
two different, complementary, interrelated
systems with human action and “immediate
environmental reaction” being part of both
systems.
2. Consider a hierarchy of human systems with
related environmental systems. 
3. Construct a ‘state of the art’ model of the
environmental system and its long-term dynamics.
 Empirical-Analytical Approaches in the
Social Sciences (Interdisciplinary)

Six basic principles, which begins from six basic

assumptions from the modelling of  HES:
4. Provide a decision theoretic conceptualization of
the human system with the components goal
formation, strategy formation, strategy selection
and action.
5. Characterize and conceptualize different types of
environmental awareness in each component of
4. 
6. Distinguish and model primary and secondary
feedback loops with respect to human action.
 Historical-Hermeneutic
Approaches in the Social
Science
Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis began with a young physician's
search for the treatment of his patients with
emotional problems. That young doctor was
Sigmund Freud, and his theory was known as
psychoanalytic theory. Freud theorized three
levels of consciousness (conscious, pre-
conscious and the unconscious mind)

Sigmund Freud
 Historical-Hermeneutic
Approaches in the Social
Three levelsScience
of consciousness:
1. Conscious mind - is merely the tip visible above the
surface, whereas the bulk of the important workings of
the mind lurks mysteriously beneath the surface.
2.  Pre-conscious mind - consist of memories that are not
presently conscious but can easily be brought into
consciousness. 
3. Unconscious mind - stores primitive instinctual motives
plus memories and emotions that are so threatening to
the conscious mind that they have been unconsciously
pushed into the unconscious mind through the process
of repression. 
 Historical-Hermeneutic
Approaches in the Social
Science
Three components of the personality structure :
1. The id is composed primarily of two sets of instincts,
the life instincts and death instincts.
2. The ego operates according to the reality principle, this
means that it holds the id in check until a safe and
realistic way has been found to satisfy its motives.
3. The superego is the ethical component of the
personality and provides the moral standards by which
the ego operates. The superego's criticisms,
prohibitions, and inhibitions form a person's
conscience, and its positive aspirations and ideals
represent one's idealized self-image, or “ego ideal.”
 LEGITIMATE POWER

This power source stems from internalized

values of other persons giving legitimate
right to agent to influence them.
Others feel the obligation to accept this
power; it is identical to authority and
closely aligned with reward and coercive
power.
It does not depend on relationship with
others; rather on position or role the
person holds.
 LEGITIMATE POWER

Legitimate power can come from three

major sources-
 The prevailing cultural values of a society,
organization or group
 Accepted social structure
 Being designated as agent or representative
of powerful person or group.
Each of these forms of legitimate power
creates an obligation to accept and be
influenced.
 REFERENT POWER

 This power comes from desire on part of

other person to identify with agent wielding
power.
 Others grant this power because he is
attractive and has desirable resources or
personal characteristics, e.g., advertisers use
celebrities, movie stars, sports figures the
buying public identifies with. Timing is an
interesting aspect of this.
 In organizational context, managers with
referent power must be attractive to
subordinates.
 EXPERT POWER

 Based on extent others attribute knowledge

and expertise to power seeker.
 Experts are perceived to have knowledge or
understanding in certain well-defined
areas.
 All sources depend on target’s perceptions of
agent to be credible, trustworthy and
relevant.
 Credibility comes from having right
credentials and display of tangible evidence
of knowledge.
 EXPERT POWER

 In organizations, staff specialists have expert

power in their functional areas but not outside.
 Expert power is highly selective and besides
credibility, agent must have trustworthiness and
relevance.
 Also the person must have relevance and
usefulness to have expert power.
 Expertise is the most tenuous type of
power.
 As organizations become more and more
technologically complex and specialised , expert
power of members at all levels becomes more
important.
 COMPARISON

 “Coercive power induces greater resistance

than reward power”
 “Users of reward power are liked better than
those depending on coercive power”
 “Changes in one power source can affect the
other sources”
 “Of more direct relevance to organizational
behaviour are bases of a manager’s power or
control to satisfaction and performance.”
 COMPARISON

 Expert power is most strongly and consistently correlated with

satisfaction and performance
 Legitimate power, along with expert power, is most important
basis for complying with a supervisor’s wishes but is an
inconsistent factor in organizational effectiveness
 Referent power is given intermediate importance but it is
positively correlated with organizational effectiveness
 Reward power is also of intermediate importance for
complying but has inconsistent correlations with performance.
 Coercive power is the least prominent for complying and is
actually negatively related to organizational effectiveness.
 COMPARISON

 In relation to management of people at work and relating to

employee satisfaction and performance, following are important:-
 Expert power is closely related to a climate of trust and manager’s
influence is internalised by subordinate and he has attitude
conformity. Expert power is fairly impersonal and concerned with
task performance.
 Legitimate power can be dependent on initially but continued
reliance may create problems as follows:-
 It can aggravate feelings of powerlessness and create dissatisfaction,
resistance and frustration among employees.
 If not conjoined with knowledge power, there may be ineffective
utilization of human resources with negative effect of productivity.
 May be inconsistent with work-life values of meaningful involvement and
participation in organizational affairs.
 Dependence on it leads to only minimum compliance and
simultaneously increases resistance.
 COMPARISON

 Referent power is emotional in nature and leads to

unquestioning, enthusiastic trust, compliance, loyalty and
commitment from subordinates. It could lead to highly
personal, selfish gains and to manipulation of subordinates.
 Reward power influences the performance behaviour of
employees and reinforcement. Limitations of this power are:-
 Tangible rewards such as pay and promotions are in short
supply.
 They have short run impact.
 Rewards may not be valued by employees
 Use of rewards can lead to dependent relationship and
subordinates feel manipulated and become dissatisfied.
 Coercive power, though it results in temporary compliance by
subordinates, it produces side-effects like frustration, fear,
revenge and alienation. In turn may lead to poor performance,
dissatisfaction and turnover.
 “The non-formal bases of power (Expert and Referent) impact most
favourably on organizational effectiveness.”
 “Power is a two-way street. The influence target is an important
variable in power relationship.”
 “The characteristics of influence targets (influentiality) have
important moderating impact on types of power that can
be successfully used.”
 Power involves a reciprocal relationship between agent and target.
The characteristics identified as being important to influenceability
or targets are:
 Dependency
 Uncertainty
 Personality
 Intelligence
 Age
 Culture
 POLITICAL IMPLICATIONS OF POWER

 Classical organization theory portrays organization as

highly rational structure in which authority meticulously
follows chain of command in which managers have
legitimatized power.
 Whereas informal managerial roles and organization
portrays more realistic view of organizations.
 Under this realistic view of organizations, the
importance of political aspects of power comes to
forefront.
 Political power game is very real in today’s
organizations.
 Like other aspects of organizational dynamics, politics
is not a simple process; it can vary from organization
to organization and also from one sub unit to another.
 POLITICAL IMPLICATIONS OF POWER

 Walter Nord has pointed out some realities of political

power. He suggests four postulates of power in
organizations focussing on political realities.
 Organizations are composed of coalitions which compete
with one another for resources, energy and influence.
 Various coalitions will seek to protect their interests and
positions of influence by moderating environmental
pressures and their effects.
 The unequal distribution of power itself has dehumanizing
effect.
 The exercise of power within organizations is one very
crucial aspect of exercise of power within larger
social system.
 Organizational politics has identified several areas
particularly relevant to the degree to which
organizations are political rather than rational.
These areas are:-
2. Resources- there is direct relationship between
amount of politics and how critical and scarce
resources are. Also, politics gets activated when
there is infusion of new or ‘unclaimed’ resources.
3. Decisions- ambiguous decisions, decisions on
which there is lack of agreement and uncertain,
long-range strategic decisions lead to more
politics than routine decisions.
1. Goals- the more ambiguous and complex the
goals become, the more politics there will
be.
2. Technology and External environment- more
complex the internal technology of the
organization, the more politics there will be.
Same is also true of organizations operating in
turbulent external environment.
3. Change- planned organizational development
effort or a reorganization or even an unplanned
change brought about by external forces will
encourage political manoeuvring.
 Some organizations and sub units within organization
will be more political than others.
 Most organizations today are more political. They have
very limited resources; make ambiguous, uncertain
decisions; have very unclear yet complex goals; have
increasingly complex technology; and are undergoing
drastic change.
 Such organizations face more politics and power
game becomes increasingly important.
 Conditions that threaten the status of the powerful or
encourage efforts of those wishing to increase their
power base will stimulate intensity of organizational
politics and increase proportion of decision making
behaviours that are as political as opposed to rational.
 Political strategies for attaining power in
organizations:
 Taking counsel
 Maintaining manoeuvrability
 Promoting limited communication
 Exhibiting confidence
 Controlling access to information and persons
 Making activities central and non-substituble
 Neutralizing potential opposition
 Making strategic replacements
 Committing the uncommitted
 Forming a winning coalition
 Developing expertise
 Building personal stature
 Employing trade-offs
 Using research data to support one’s own
point of view
 Restricting communication about real
intentions
 Withdrawing from petty disputes
 Maintain alliances with powerful people: the
formation of coalitions is critical to acquisition of
power in an orgn. An obvious coalition would be
with members of upper level management. Not so
obvious but equally important would be formation
of alliance with boss’ secretary or staff assistant,
that is, someone close to the powerful person.
 Embrace or Demolish: Machiavellian principles
can be applied as strategies in power game in
organization.
 Divide and Rule: this political and military strategy
can also apply to acquisition of power in
organizations.
 Manipulate classified information: the importance of
obtaining and disseminating information is immense.
The politically astute organization member carefully
controls this information in order to gain power.
 Make a quick showing: this strategy involves looking
good on some project or task right away in order to get
the right peoples’ attention. Once this positive
attention is gained, power is acquired to do other
usually more difficult and long-range projects.
 Collect and use IOUs: power seeker should do other
people favours but should make it clear that they owe
something in return and will be expected to pay up
when asked.
 Avoid decisive engagement (Fabianism): this is a strategy of
going slow and easy- by not ‘ruffling feathers’ power
seekers can slowly but surely become entrenched and gain
cooperation and trust of others.
 Progress one step at a time: this strategy involves taking one
step at a time instead of trying to push a whole major project
or reorganization attempt. One small change can be a
foothold that power seeker can use as a basis to get other,
more major things accomplished.
 Wait for a crisis: this strategy uses reverse of ‘no news is
good news’; that is, bad news gets attention.
 Take counsel with caution: this is concerned with how to keep
power than with how to acquire it. The manager should avoid
opening the gates for shared decision making with
subordinates which may erode the power of manager.
The ethical concern for power and politics
in organizations goes beyond the notions
of success or effectiveness.
Though respect for justice and human
rights should prevail when it concerns
ethics in organizational politics, modern
complex organizations tend to create a
climate which promotes power seeking
and political manoeuvring and that’s
the organizational reality today.