OSCILLATORS

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 Oscillators

 Oscillators are electronic circuits that generate an output

signal without the necessity of an input signal.
 It produces a periodic waveform on its output with only the
DC supply voltage as an input.
 The output voltage can be either sinusoidal or nonsinusoidal,
depending on the type of oscillator.
 Different types of oscillators produce various types of
outputs including sine waves, square waves, triangular
waves, and sawtooth waves.
 A basic oscillator is shown in figure

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 2

circuits
 Oscillators

The basic oscillator concept showing three common types of output

wave-forms: sine wave, square wave, and sawtooth.

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 Oscillators

 There are two major classifications

for oscillators: feedback oscillators
and relaxation oscillators.
 feedback oscillator: which returns a
fraction of the output signal to the
input with no net phase shift,
resulting in a reinforcement of the
output signal.
 A feedback oscillator consists of an
amplifier for gain and a positive
feedback circuit that produces phase
shift and provides attenuation.

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circuits
 Oscillators

Relaxation Oscillators

 A second type of oscillator is the relaxation oscillator.

 Instead of feedback, a relaxation oscillator uses an RC
timing circuit to generate a waveform that is generally a
square wave or other nonsinusoidal waveform.
 Typically, a relaxation oscillator uses a Schmitt trigger or
other device that changes states to alternately charge and
discharge a capacitor through a resistor.

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 5

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 Feedback Oscillators

 Feedback oscillator operation is based on the principle of

positive feedback.
 We will look at the general conditions required for
oscillation to occur.
 Feedback oscillators are widely used to generate
sinusoidal waveforms.
 In positive feedback, a portion of the output voltage of
an amplifier is fed back to the input with no net phase
shift, resulting in a strengthening of the output signal
 This basic idea is illustrated in figure

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 6

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 Feedback Oscillators

 The in-phase feedback voltage

is amplified to produce the
output voltage, which in turn
produces the feedback
voltage.
 A loop is created in which
the signal maintains itself
and a continuous sinusoidal
output is produced.
 This phenomenon is called
oscillation

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 7

circuits
 Feedback Oscillators

 Two conditions are required for a sustained state of

oscillation:
1. The phase shift around the feedback loop must be
0°.
2. The voltage gain, Acl , around the closed feedback loop
(loop gain) must equal 1 (unity).
Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 8
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 Feedback Oscillators

 When switch at the amplifier input is open, no oscillation occurs.

 For input Vi ,the feedback voltage Vf = (BA)Vi .
 In order to maintain Vf = Vi , BA must be in the correct
magnitude and phase.
 When the switch is closed and Vi is removed, the circuit will
continue operating since the feedback voltage is sufficient to drive
the amplifier and feedback circuit, resulting in proper input
voltage to sustain the loop operation.

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 9

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 Feedback Oscillators

 The voltage gain around the closed feedback loop, Acl , is

the product of the amplifier gain, Av , and the
attenuation, B, of the feedback circuit Acl = Av B
 If a sinusoidal wave is the desired output, a loop gain
greater than 1 will rapidly cause the output to saturate at
both peaks of the waveform, producing unacceptable
distortion
 To avoid this, some form of gain control must be used to
keep the loop gain at exactly 1 once oscillations have
started.

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 Start-up Conditions

 We have seen what it takes for an oscillator to

produce a continuous sinusoidal output.
 What are the requirements for the oscillation to start when
the dc supply voltage is first turned on?
 The unity-gain condition must be met for oscillation to be
maintained.
 For oscillation to begin, the voltage gain around the positive
feedback loop must be greater than 1 so that the amplitude
of the output can build up to a desired level.
 The gain must then decrease to 1 so that the output stays at
the desired level and oscillation is sustained.

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 Start-up Conditions

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 RC Feedback Circuits

 Three types of feedback oscillators that use RC circuits to

produce sinusoidal outputs are the
1. Wien-bridge oscillator
2. Phase-shift oscillator
3. Twin-T oscillator
 Generally, RC feedback oscillators are used for frequencies
up to about 1 MHz.
 The Wien-bridge is by far the most widely used type of RC
feedback oscillator for this range of frequencies.

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 13

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 Wien-Bridge Oscillator

 The feedback circuit in a Wien-bridge uses a lead-lag circuit

 R1 and C1 together form the lag portion of the circuit;
R2
and C2 form the lead portion.

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 14

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 Wien-Bridge Oscillator

 At lower frequencies, the lead circuit takes over due to the high
reactance of C2 .
 As the frequency increases, XC2 decreases, thus allowing
the output voltage to increase.
 At some specified frequency, the response of the lag circuit
over, and the decreasing value of XC1 causes the output voltage
takes
to decrease.
 The output voltage peaks at a frequency called the resonant
1
frequency,
𝑟given by
𝑟𝑓 𝑓𝑟=𝑟𝑓 𝑓 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
; (when R1 =R2 and C1 =C2)

 At resonant frequency, the phase shift through the circuit is 0°

and the attenuation is 𝑜𝑜𝑉𝑜𝑉= 1
3
𝑉𝑉𝑖

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 15

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 Wien-Bridge Oscillator

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 Wien-Bridge Oscillator

 The basic Wien-bridge uses the

lead-lag network in the positive
feedback loop to select a specific
frequency that is amplified
 The voltage divider in the
negative feedback loop sets the
gain to make up for the
attenuation of the feedback
network.
 The Wien-bridge oscillator circuit can be viewed as
a noninverting amplifier configuration with the input
signal fed back from the output through the lead-lag
circuit
Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 17
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 Wien-Bridge Oscillator

The closed-loop gain of the noninverting amplifier is (1+R1 /R2).

Since there is a loss of 1/3 of the signal in the positive feedback loop,
the noninverting amplifier must have a gain of exactly 3.0 as set by
R1 and R2 to make up for the attenuation. The unity-gain condition is
met when R1 = 2R2

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 18

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 Wien-Bridge Oscillator
To start the oscillations an initial closed-loop gain of the
amplifier more than 3 must be achieved until the output signal
builds up to a desired level.
The gain of the amplifier must then decrease to 3 so that the
total gain around the loop is 1 and the output signal stays at the
desired level, thus sustaining oscillation.

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 19

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 Wien-Bridge Oscillator
The back-to-back zener diode arrangement is one way of
achieving sustained oscillations.
When dc is first applied the zeners
appear as opens. This places R3 in
series with R1 , thus increasing the
closed-loop gain of the amplifier.
A small positive feedback signal
develops from noise is amplified
and continually strengthened,
resulting in a buildup of the output
voltage

When the output signal reaches the zener breakdown voltage,

the zeners conduct and the amplifier’s gain is reduced to 3.

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 20

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 Wien-Bridge Oscillator
 Automatic gain control is necessary to maintain a gain of exact
unity.
 The zener arrangement for gain control is simple but produces
distortion because of the nonlinearity of zener diodes.
 A better method to control the gain uses a JFET as a
voltage controlled resistor in a negative feedback path.
 This method can produce an excellent sinusoidal waveform that is
stable.
 A JFET operating with a small or zero VDS is operating in the
ohmic region.
 As the gate voltage increases, the drain-source resistance
increases.
 If the JFET is placed in the negative feedback path, automatic gain
control can be achieved because of this voltage-controlled
resistance.

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 21

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 Wien-Bridge Oscillator

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 Wien-Bridge Oscillator
 The gain of the op-amp is controlled by the components shown in
the green box, which include the JFET
 The JFET’s drain-source resistance depends on the gate voltage.
 With no output signal, the gate is at zero volts, causing the drain-
source resistance to be at the minimum and the loop gain is greater
than 1.
 Oscillations begin and rapidly build to a large output signal.
 Negative output signal forward-bias D1 causing capacitor
C3 to charge to a negative voltage.
 This voltage increases the drain-source resistance of the JFET and
reduces the gain (and hence the output).
 With the proper selection of components, the gain can be
stabilized at the required level.

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 23

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 Wien-Bridge Oscillator

The JFET is operated in the ohmic region and can change its
resistance rapidly if conditions change.
Recall from Chapter 8 that a
JFET acts as a variable resistor
in the ohmic region. If the
output increases, the bias tends 7
Ohmic
to be larger, and the drain-source 6 VG = 0 V
resistance increases (and vice- 5 region
VG = 0.5 V
versa). In the Wien-bridge, the ID 4
(mA)
JFET drain-source resistance 3 VG =  V

controls the gain of the op-amp 2 VG =  V

and will compensate for any 1
change to the output.
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
VDS (V)

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 Wien-Bridge Oscillator

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 Wien-Bridge Oscillator

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 The Phase-Shift Oscillator

The phase-shift oscillator uses three RC circuits in the feedback

path that have a total phase shift of 180° at one frequency – for
this reason an inverting amplifier is required for this circuit

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 27

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 The Phase-Shift Oscillator

 Each of the three RC circuits in the feedback loop can

provide a maximum phase shift approaching 90°.
 Oscillation occurs at the frequency where the total phase
shift through the three RC circuits is 180°.
 The inversion of the op-amp itself provides the additional
180° to meet the requirement for oscillation of a 360° (or 0°)
phase shift around the feedback loop.
 The attenuation of the three-section RC feedback circuit is
1/29
 To meet the unity loop gain requirement, the closed-loop
voltage gain of the inverting op-amp must be 29

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 28

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 The Phase-Shift Oscillator

Conditions for oscillation with the phase-shift oscillator is

that if all R’s and C’s are equal, the amplifier must have a
gain of at least 29 to make up for the attenuation of the
feedback circuit. This means that R f /R3 ≥ 29.

Under these conditions,

the frequency of Rf
oscillation is given by
– C1 C2 C3
1 0V
fr  Vout
2π +
R1 R2 R3
6RC

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 29

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 The Phase-Shift Oscillator

Multisim can simulate the phase-shift oscillator, but has

difficulty starting. In the Multisim file for Example 16-3, a
switch is provided to provide a voltage spike to start
oscillations. This is not needed in the actual circuit.

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 The Phase-Shift Oscillator

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 The Phase-Shift Oscillator

Design a phase-shift oscillator for a frequency of 800 Hz.

The capacitors are to be 10 nF.

Start by solving for the resistors needed in the feedback circuit:

1 1
R  (Use 8.2 k.)
 8.12 k
2π 6 f r C 2π 6 800 Hz 10
Rf
Calculate the feedback
nF  needed:
resistor 238 k
– C1 C2 C3
Rf = 29R = 238 k. 
Vout
+ 10 nF 10 nF 10 nF
R1 R2 R3

The following slide 8.2 k 8.2 k 8.2 k

shows the Multisim

check.
Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 32
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 Summary

The Phase-Shift Oscillator

Because the Rf is not precise, you will see
the output “grow” in Multisim. In actual
circuits, you can use a potentiometer to
adjust a precise gain, but the circuit will
be sensitive to temperature change.

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 33

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 Summary

The Phase-Shift Oscillator

You can also use back-to back zener diodes to limit the output. The
output is limited to about 7 Vpp with 1N4372A (3.0 V) zeners.

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 34

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 The Twin-T Oscillator

Another type of RC feedback oscillator is called the twin-T

because of the two T-type RC filters used in the feedback loop
as shown

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 The Twin-T Oscillator

 One of the twin-T filters has a low-pass response, and the

other has a high-pass response.
 The combined parallel filters produce a band-stop or notch
response with a center frequency equal to the desired
frequency of oscillation fr .
 Oscillation cannot occur at frequencies above or below fr
because of the negative feedback through the filters.
 At fr however, there is negligible negative feedback; thus, the
positive feedback through the voltage divider (R1 and R2)
allows the circuit to oscillate.

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 36

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 The Twin-T Oscillator

The basic twin-T oscillator combines a low-pass and high-

pass filter to form a notch filter at the oscillation frequency.
An excellent notch
filter can be formed by
using R ’s and C ’s
related by a factor of 2
as shown here. R Low-pass R
With this relationship, 2C
the oscillation –

frequency is C High-pass C
+
Vout

R1
approximately
1 R/2 R2

fr 
2πRC Twin-T
filter

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 LC Oscillators

 Although the RC feedback oscillators, particularly the

Wien bridge, are generally suitable for frequencies up to
about 1 MHz, LC feedback elements are normally used in
oscillators that require higher frequencies of oscillation.
 Also, because of the frequency limitation (lower unity-
gain frequency) of most op-amps, transistors (BJT or
FET) are often used as the gain element in LC oscillators.
 This section introduces several types of resonant LC
feedback oscillators like the Colpitts, Clapp, Hartley,
Armstrong, and crystal-controlled oscillators.

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 38

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 The Colpitts Oscillator

One basic type of

resonant circuit feedback
oscillator is the Colpitts
shown in the figure. This
type of oscillator uses an
LC circuit in the feedback
loop to provide the
necessary phase shift and
to act as a resonant filter
that passes only the
desired frequency of
oscillation.

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 39

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 The Colpitts Oscillator

The approximate frequency of oscillation is the resonant

frequency of the LC circuit and is established by the values of
C1 , C2 and L according to the formula:
1
𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟 =
2𝜋𝜋 𝐿𝐶
𝑇𝑇
Where CT is the total capacitance the series capacitors around
the tank circuit, given by:
𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇 = 𝐶1𝐶𝐶2𝐶
𝐶
1𝐶+𝐶
2𝐶
The output voltage is developed across C1 and the feedback
voltage is developed across C2 .

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 40

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 The Colpitts Oscillator

The attenuation, B, of the resonant

feedback circuit in the Colpitts
oscillator is basically determined by
the values of C1 , and C2 .
The voltage developed across C2 is
the oscillator’s output voltage Vout
and the voltage developed across C1
is the feedback voltageVf .

The expression for the attenuation

is 𝐵= 𝐶𝐶2/𝐶𝐶1
The condition for oscillation is𝐵𝐵
=
𝐴
𝑣𝑣𝐴1
or𝑣=𝐴𝐴 𝐶1𝑣𝐶/𝐶
2𝐶
Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 41
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 The Colpitts Oscillator

 The input impedance of the amplifier

acts as a load on the resonant
feedback circuit and reduces the Q
of the circuit.
 The resonant frequency of a parallel
resonant circuit depends on the Q as:
1 𝑄2
𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟 =
2𝜋
𝜋 𝐶𝐿𝐶 𝑇𝑇 𝑄
𝑄2 + 1

 For a Q greater than 10,𝑟is𝑓𝑟 approximately 1/(2𝜋𝜋 𝐿𝐶𝐶𝑇)𝑇

 When Q is less than 10,𝑟is𝑓𝑟 reduced significantly

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 42

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 The Colpitts Oscillator

 A FET can be used in place of

a BJT to minimize the loading
effect of the transistor’s input
impedance because of the
higher input impedance of FET.
 Also, when an external load is
connected to the oscillator
output,
𝑟may
𝑟𝑓 𝑓decrease because of a
reduction in Q if the load
resistance is too small .
 One way to eliminate the
effects of a load resistance is
by transformer coupling.

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 43

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 The Colpitts Oscillator

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Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 45
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 The Clapp Oscillator

 The Clapp oscillator is a variation of the Colpitts.

 The basic difference is an additional capacitor, C3 in series
with the inductor in the resonant feedback circuit.
 Since C3 is in series with C1 and C2 around the tank circuit,
the total capacitance is
1
𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇 =
1/𝐶
𝐶
1 + 1/𝐶
𝐶
2 + 1/𝐶
𝐶
3

 In Clapp oscillator, C3 is much smaller than C1 and C2 . As

a result CT is approximately equal to C3 and the resonant
frequency is controlled by C3 .
 Clapp provides a more accurate and stable frequency of
oscillation since C1 and C2 are shunted by transistor and the
stray capacitances alter their values.

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 46

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 The Clapp Oscillator

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 The Hartley Oscillator

 The Hartley oscillator is similar to the Colpitts oscillator,

except the resonant circuit consists of two series inductors
(or a single tapped inductor) and a parallel capacitor. The
frequency for Q > 10 is 1 1
fr 
 2π LTC 2π  L1  L2
 The inductors act in a role similar to C1 and C2 in the
Colpitts to determine the attenuation, B, of the Cfeedback
circuit B = (L1 / L2).
 To assure start-up of oscillation, Av must be greater than
1/B.
 Loading of the tank circuit has the same effect in the Hartley
as in the Colpitts; that is, the Q is decreased and thus fr
decreases
Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 48
circuits
 The Hartley Oscillator

Vf
Av Vout

Out L1 L2 In

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 49

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 The Armstrong Oscillator

 This type of LC feedback oscillator uses transformer

coupling to feed back a portion of the signal
voltage.
 The transformer secondary coil provides the feedback to
keep the oscillation going.
 The Armstrong is less common than the Colpitts, Clapp,
and Hartley, mainly because of the disadvantage of
transformer size and cost.
 The frequency of oscillation is set by the inductance of the
primary winding (Lpri) in parallel
1 with C1
𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟 =
2𝜋
𝜋
1𝐶 𝑝𝐶𝑝𝑟𝑝𝑝𝐿 𝐿

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 The Armstrong Oscillator

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 The Crystal Oscillator

 The most stable and accurate type of feedback oscillator

uses a piezoelectric crystal in the feedback loop to control
the frequency.
 Quartz is one type of crystalline substance found in nature
that exhibits a property called the piezoelectric effect.
 When a changing mechanical stress is applied across the
crystal to cause it to vibrate, a voltage develops at the
frequency of mechanical vibration.
 Conversely, when an AC voltage is applied across the
crystal, it vibrates at the frequency of the applied voltage.
 The greatest vibration occurs at the crystal’s natural
resonant frequency, which is determined by the physical
dimensions and by the way the crystal is cut.

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 The Crystal Oscillator

 The crystal’s equivalent circuit is a series-parallel RLC circuit

and can operate in either series resonance or parallel resonance.
 At the series resonant frequency, the inductive reactance is
cancelled by the reactance of CS .
 At this frequency, crystal offers a very low impedance to the
external circuit where Z = RS.

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circuits
 The Crystal Oscillator
Parallel resonance (antiresonance) occurs when reactance of the
series leg equals the reactance of CP . At this frequency, crystal
offers a very high impedance to the external circuit. The parallel
resonant frequency is usually at least 1 kHz higher than the series
resonant frequency.

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 54

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 The Crystal Oscillator

 A great advantage of the crystal

is that it exhibits a very high Q .
 An oscillator that uses a crystal as
a series resonant tank circuit is
shown
 The impedance of the crystal is
minimum at the series
resonant frequency, thus
providing maximum feedback.
 The crystal tuning capacitor,
CC
is used to “fine tune” the oscillator
frequency
Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 55
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 The Crystal Oscillator

 A modified Colpitts configuration

is shown with a crystal acting as
a parallel resonant tank circuit.
 At the parallel-resonant operating
frequency, a crystal appears as
an inductive reactance of largest
value.
 Under this condition, Maximum
voltage is developed across the
capacitor. The voltage across C1 is
fed back to the input.

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 Relaxation Oscillators

 The second major category of oscillators is the

relaxation oscillator.
 Relaxation oscillators make use of an RC timing and a
device that changes states to generate a periodic
waveform (non-sinusoidal).
 In this section, you will learn about several circuits that
are used to produce the following nonsinusoidal
waveforms
1. Triangular-wave
2. Square-wave
3. Sawtooth

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 A Triangular-Wave Oscillator

 The op-amp integrator can be used as the basis for a

triangular-wave oscillator.
 The basic idea is illustrated in Figure where a dual-
polarity, switched input is used to introduce the concept.
 When the switch is in position 1, the negative voltage is
applied, and the output is a positive-going ramp.
 When the switch is thrown into position 2, a negative-
going ramp is produced.
 If the switch is thrown back and forth at fixed intervals,
the output is a triangular wave consisting of alternating
positive-going and negative-going ramps as shown.

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 A Triangular-Wave Oscillator

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 A Triangular-Wave Oscillator

A practical
implementation of a
triangular-wave
oscillator circuit which
is a combination of a
comparator and
integrator is shown.

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 A Triangular-Wave Oscillator

 Assume that the output voltage of the comparator is at its

maximum negative level.
 This output is connected to the inverting input of the
integrator through R1 , producing a positive-going ramp
on the output of the integrator.
 When the ramp voltage reaches the upper trigger point
(UTP), the comparator switches to its maximum positive
level.
 This positive level causes the integrator ramp to change
to a negative-going direction.
 The ramp continues in this direction until the lower
trigger point (LTP) of the comparator is reached and the
cycle repeats.

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 A Triangular-Wave Oscillator

The output amplitude is set by the output swing of the

comparator, and the resistors R2 and R3 set the amplitude of
the triangular output by establishing the UTP and LTP voltages
according to the following formulas

The frequency of both waveforms depends on the R1C time

constant as well as the amplitude-setting resistors, R2 and
R3 . By varying R1 , the frequency of oscillation can be
adjusted without changing the output amplitude.

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circuits
 A Triangular-Wave Oscillator

What is the frequency of the circuit shown here? To what

value R1 must be changed to make the frequency 20 kHz?

= 671 Hz

To make the frequency 20 kHz:

–
R1 10 nF
–
+ 82 k Vout
Comparator R2 +
22 k
R3 Integrator

10 k

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circuits
 Summary

Relaxation Oscillators

Normally, the triangle wave generator uses fast comparators to avoid slew
rate problems. For non-critical applications, a 741 will work nicely for
low frequencies (<2 kHz). The circuit here is one you can construct easily
in lab. (The circuit is the same as Example 16-4 but with a larger C.)
The waveforms are:
Vout2
C
Square wave

–
R1 0.1 F
741 –
10 k 74 Vout1
+
R2 1
33 k Triangl
R3 + e wave
Both channels: 5 V/div
250 s/div
10 k

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circuits
 A Sawtooth VCO

 It is a relaxation oscillator whose frequency can be changed

by a variable dc control voltage.
 The PUT is a programmable unijunction transistor with an
anode, a cathode, and a gate terminal.
 The gate is always biased positively with respect to the
cathode.
 When the anode voltage exceeds the gate voltage by
approximately 0.7 V, the PUT turns on and acts as
a forward-biased diode.
 The current must be above the holding value to maintain
conduction.

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 65

circuits
 A Sawtooth VCO

A sawtooth VCO uses an integrator to create the ramp portion

of the waveform. In this case, when V C > V G + 0.7 V, the PUT
fires and the capacitor discharges rapidly until the PUT current
falls below the holding value. The sawtooth amplitude and
period can be adjusted by varying the PUT gate voltage

In this circuit, the device that changes VVVGG

state is a PUT and the RC timing circuit PU

PUT
PUTT
+
is an integrator. ++ Vp
disofchaf
C rge
VVpp
CC–
––
The frequency is found by: Ri
RRii
–
– 0V
– charge Vout
0V
VIN +
+
VVooutut
––ININ
VF is the PUT forward voltage VV
++
+

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 66

circuits
Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 67
circuits
Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 68
circuits
 A Square-Wave Oscillator
The basic square-wave oscillator shown is a type of relaxation
oscillator because its operation is based on the charging and
discharging of a capacitor.

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 69

circuits
 A Square-Wave Oscillator

 When the circuit is first turned on, the capacitor is

uncharged, and thus the inverting input is at 0 V.
 This makes the output a positive maximum, and the
capacitor begins to charge toward Vout through R1 .
 When the capacitor voltageVC reaches a value equal to the
feedback voltage V f on the noninverting input, the op-amp
switches to the maximum negative state.
 The capacitor begins to discharge from V f toward – V f .
 When the capacitor voltage reaches – V f the op-amp
switches back to the maximum positive state and the action
continues to repeat.

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 70

circuits
 THE 555 TIMER AS AN OSCILLATOR

The 555 timer

consists
basically of
two
comparators,
a flip-flop, a
discharge
transistor, and
a resistive
voltage
divider.

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 71

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 THE 555 TIMER AS AN OSCILLATOR

A 555 timer connected to operate in the astable mode as a free-

running relaxation oscillator (astable multivibrator) is shown.
Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 72
circuits
 THE 555 TIMER AS AN OSCILLATOR

 Initially, when the power is turned on, the capacitor Cext is

uncharged and thus the trigger voltage (pin 2) is at 0 V.
 This causes the output of the lower comparator to be high
and the output of the upper comparator to be low, forcing the
output of the flip-flop and the base of Qd low and
keeping the transistor off.
 Now, Cext begins charging through R1 and R2 . When the
capacitor voltage reaches (1/3)VCC , the lower comparator
switches to its low output state, and when the capacitor
voltage reaches (2/3)VCC , the upper comparator switches to
its high output state.
 This resets the flip-flop, causes the base of Qd to go high,
and turns on the transistor. This creates a discharge path for
the capacitor through R2 and the transistor.

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 73

circuits
 THE 555 TIMER AS AN OSCILLATOR

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 74

circuits
 THE 555 TIMER AS AN OSCILLATOR

 The capacitor begins to discharge, causing the upper

comparator to go low. When the capacitor discharges down
to (1/3)VCC , the lower comparator switches high, setting the
flip-flop, which makes the base of Qd low and turns off the
transistor.
 Another charging cycle begins, and the entire process
repeats.
 The frequency of oscillation is given as

 By selecting R1 and R2 the duty cycle of the output can be

adjusted as

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 75

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 THE 555 TIMER AS AN OSCILLATOR

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 76

circuits
 Operation as a VCO

 A 555 timer can be set up to operate as a VCO by using the

same external connections as for astable operation, with
the exception that a variable control voltage is applied to
the CONT input.
 The control voltage changes the threshold values of (1/3)VCC
and (2/3)VCC for the internal comparators.
 With the control voltage, the upper value is VCONT and
the lower value is (1/2)VCONT .
 An increase in VCONT increases the charging and
discharging time of the external capacitor and causes the
frequency to decrease.
 A decrease in VCONT decreases the charging and
discharging time of the capacitor and causes the frequency
to increase.
Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 77
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 Operation as a VCO

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 78

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 Selected Key Terms

Feedback An electronic circuit that operates with positive

oscillator feedback and produces a time-varying output
signal without an external input signal.
Relaxatio An electronic circuit that uses an RC timing
n oscillator circuit to generate a nonsinusoidal waveform
without an external input signal.

Positive The return of a portion of the output signal

feedbac that it reinforces and sustains the input signal.
ksuch

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 79

circuits
 Quiz

1. The Wien-bridge oscillator uses the network shown. If

R’s and C’s are equal, the maximum Vout will be phase-
shifted by
a. 0o R1
C2

Vin Vout
b. 90 o

C1 R2
c. 180o
d. 270o

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 80

circuits
 Quiz

2. The ohmic region of a JFET is the operating region for a

JFET used in a Wien-bridge AGC circuit because the
a. resistance is constant 7

6 VG = 0 V
b. resistance depends on VDS 5
VG = 0.5 V
ID 4
c. resistance depends on V G (mA)
VG =  V
3

d. resistance depends on ID 2 VG =  V

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
VDS (V)

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 81

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 Quiz

3. Assume the Wien-bridge oscillator shown is operating

normally and the output voltage is a 6 Vpp sine wave. V G
should be
a. 1 Vpp sine wave C1 Rf

–
R1
b. 2 Vpp sine wave Vout
+
D1
c. +3 VDC Q1
VG
R2 C2
d. 2.3 VDC R3 R4 C3

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 82

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 Quiz

4. The twin-t oscillator uses the network shown. At the

oscillator frequency, the output of this network is phase-
shifted by
a. 0o
b. 90o Vin Vout

c. 180o
d. 270o

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 83

circuits
 Quiz

5. The overall frequency response characteristic of the

twin-t oscillator network shown is that of a
a. low-pass filter
b. high-pass filter
c. band-pass filter Vin Vout

d. notch filter

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 84

circuits
 Quiz

6. An example of an LC feedback oscillator is a

a. phase-shift oscillator
b. relaxation oscillator
c. Colpitts oscillator
d. Wien-bridge oscillator

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 85

circuits
 Quiz

7. In a crystal oscillator, the crystal acts like a

a. band-pass filter
b. resonant circuit
c. notch filter
d. power source

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 86

circuits
 Quiz

8. The waveforms at Vout1 and Vout2 should be a

a. sawtooth wave and a sine wave
b. triangle wave and a square wave
c. sawtooth wave and a square wave
d. triangle wave and a sine wave
C
Vout2

–
R1
–
+
R2 Vout1
+
R3

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 87

circuits
 Quiz

9. The output waveform from this circuit should be a

a. sawtooth wave
VG

b. triangle wave PUT

+ Vp

c. square wave C
–

Ri
d. sine wave –
0V
Vout
–
VIN +
+

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 88

circuits
 Quiz

10.To make a basic astable multivibrator using a 555 timer,

as a minimum you need
a. one resistor and one capacitor
b. one resistor and two capacitors
c. two resistors and one capacitor
d. two resistors and two capacitors

Fundamentals of Electronic Prepared by Prof Enrique Junio 89

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