Aerodynamics

Compressible Flow

Aerodynamics
Dr. A.Z. Shahneh
Premaster Course
Aircraft Design Group
Aircraft Engineering Dept.
School of Engineering
 1. Introduction /aim
• Introduce the aircraft design stages & importance
of high speed flow

• Introduce compressibility & Mach number

properties in supercritical flow.

• Introduce transonic flow and normal shock wave

• Introduce Supersonic flow & hypersonic flight

. Introduce equations of normal shock wave and stagnation

Properties
 1. Introduction / aircraft discipline
- An aircraft is an engineering system,
comprising many sub-systems.

- Study of aircraft is divided to 3 main

streams: Airframe structure, airframe
systems and airframe avionics

- Most of engineering subjects are

involved in design and operation of
aircraft: Mechanics, Aerodynamics,
Metallurgy, Electronics, Computer and
Managements
 1. Introduction / aircraft discipline

- Flight management systems appear at the surface of the

airframe as a series of flight stability & control surfaces, together
with lift and drag enhancement surfaces.

-Interference between all exposed surfaces increases the drag

of the overall airframe (interface drag).

-Overall drag will appear, sub sonically, as a drag polar, of the

form. Precise drag prediction is very difficult but this data is vital
to the success of a design.
 1. Introduction 1/ aircraft design stages
-Aircraft production comprises 4 main stages:
Demand and Feasibility study, Design,
Procurement and Fabrication, Test

- Aircraft design is run within 3 main stages:

Conceptual design, Basic (preliminary) design
and Detail design

- Production is a wide range of activities from

factory and all facilities, material preparation, part
fabrication, assembly and mass production line,
including all local and prompt tests

- The validation of the aircraft is done at all

possible operational conditions, for the loading
balance, static stability & control, dynamic
stability & control and the flight dynamics
behaviour.
 1. Introduction/ incompressible flow review

Pressure Coefficient:
• 1. the freestream dynamic pressure defined by ½ρ∞ U∞2, the practical form
of pressure coefficient is:

• 2. If flow is incompressible (Density constant):

 1. Introduction/ incompressible flow review

Conservation of Energy

For a fluid in motion, if no work or heat is transferred into or out of

the system, then the steady flow energy equation, in differential
form, becomes as follows:

This is Bernoulli Equation for an incompressible frictionless flow

 1. Introduction/ incompressible flow review

The Bernoulli Equation for the steady flow air up to about Mach 0.3 (about 2% error) is
applicable. For a Pitot tube, Bernouli Equation is:
p∞ + ½ρ∞ U∞2 + ρ∞ g z∞ = p + ½ρ u2 + ρg z = constant and static pressure + dynamic
pressure = total pressure
A Pitot tube is facing the flow of air and measures total pressure. Thus, ppitot = p∞ +
½ρ∞ U∞2
The dynamic pressures is thus: ppitot - pstatic = ppitot - p∞ = ½ρ∞ U∞2. If the density of
the field is known, then U∞ is obtained.
 1. Introduction/ incompressible flow review

Bernoulli Equation for an incompressible frictionless flow around an airfoil:

p∞ + ½ρ∞ U∞2 + ρ∞ g z∞ = p + ½ρ u2 + ρg z = constant
meaning that static pressure + dynamic pressure + potential pressure are
constant.
Thus p - p∞ = ½ ρ∞(U∞2 – u2) + ρg(z∞ - z) is the pressure difference at any
point on the surface compared with the freestream static pressure. The
potential term ρg(z∞ - z) is ignored in normal aircraft aerodynamic work,
compared with the pressure & velocity terms
 2. compressible flow

FA-18 Hornet at transonic flight conditions

 2. compressible flow

1. Subsonic flow: typically occurs in flows with Mach numbers less than 0.8

2. Transonic flow: occurs in flows with Mach numbers between 0.8 and 1.2.
3. Supersonic speed is a rate of travel of an object that exceeds the speed of M
1.2

4. Hypersonic flow: Speeds greater than 5 times the speed of sound to M10

5. High Hypersonic: Speed between 10 to 25 Mach

(For objects travelling in dry air of a temperature of 20 °C (68 °F) this speed is
approximately 343 m/s, 1,125 ft/s, 768 mph or 1,236 km/h. )

However, the flow upper than 0.3 Mach is compressible flow.

 2. compressible flow

The most important difference between the compressible and

incompressible flow models is that the compressible flow model
allows for the existence of Shock Wave and Choked flow

The relation between Cp in compressible and incompressible is

1. The Karman-Tsien transformation

2. Prandtl-Glauert transformation:

cp is the compressible pressure coefficient

cp0 is the incompresible pressure coefficient
M is the Mach number
 2. compressible flow/ transonic flow
Development of Aerofoil transonic flow with Mach number
- An airplane flying up to a free-stream Mach number of about 0.7
creates a disturbance in the air and propagates pressure pulses in all
directions.

- The local Mach number at the airfoil surface will be higher than the
free-stream Mach number, reaches Mach 1.

- As a transonic flow passes over the upper surface of the wing, the flow
initially accelerates and therefore the surface static pressure falls.

- Then the upper surface usually posses a large region of supersonic

flow, which is terminated by a normal shock wave.
- In order for this supersonic flow to return to subsonic flow, it must pass
through a shock wave. Typical shock thickness is in the order of
0.01mm.
 2. compressible flow/ transonic flow
Development of Aerofoil transonic flow with Mach number

Transonic aerofoil contributing a region of subsonic flow at the front, a region of

supersonic on the wing and transforming to subsonic when passes through a shock
wave
 2. compressible flow/ transonic flow
Development of Aerofoil transonic flow with Mach number

At subsonic speeds, airfoil drag is composed of:

-skin-friction drag,
- pressure drag,
- induced drag (or drag due to lift).

At transonic and supersonic speeds, there is a substantial increase in the

total drag of the airplane due to:
- wave drag which causes the airplane drag rises sharply, and large
increases in thrust are necessary to obtain further increases in speed. This
is due to the unstable formation of shock waves that transforms a
considerable part of the available propulsive energy into heat, and to the
induced separation of flow from the airplane surfaces.
 2. compressible flow/ transonic flow
Development of Aerofoil transonic flow with Mach number

- For a fixed flow incidence, flow over the wing is terminated to normal shock
wave without separation up to Mach 0.78

- Increasing up to Mach 0.81 has been resulted to shift forward the

shock location and formation of shock induced separation.

- A further increasing of speed up to Mach 0.88 is resulted an extension of

separation region up to the trailing edge.

- A further increasing of Mach over 0.92 results in both shocks moving

downstream to the trailing edge and is considered as supersonic.

- In the case of a critical fix Mach number, as the incidence is increasing the
shock wave forms on the upper surface of the airfoil and it moves forward by a
further increasing.
2. compressible flow/ transonic flow
Development of transonic flow due to increasing
Mach number and angle of incidence
 2. compressible flow/ transonic flow
An insight study of transonic flow on a flat plate has been done by Aktin
and Squire:
- the development of flow from attached flow at Mach 1.3 to fully separated
flow at Mach 1.55 , see next page

- At Mach 1.3: Attached flow

- AT Mach 1.3 to 1.42

- At Mach to 1.45
- At Mach to 1.55: Fully separated flow
 2. compressible flow/ transonic flow
Photograph of shock wave boundary layer interaction at different Mach numbers
2. compressible flow/ transonic flow

-At a height above the surface, the normal shock bifurcated.

- The front leg of the bifurcated shock inclines down into the
boundary layer at the angle of 127 degrees.
- The left and right angles are 53 and 75 degrees respectively
- The separation point has started at the first foot, and the angle
of turning away of the viscous layer is approximately 7.5
degrees.
- The thickness of viscous layer is greatly increased by the
interaction.
-The boundary layer thickness at the point just before
separation is 0.012m (12mm), and at the next 30mm
downstream of this point is 0.016m.
 2. compressible flow/ transonic flow
Sclieren photography of shock wave boundary layer interaction
 2. compressible flow/ transonic flow
Features of a normal shock/ boundary layer interaction
 2. compressible flow/ transonic
Zero (incidence) Lift Drag - Mach effects through & beyond the
Transonic region for whole aircraft, a sharp increasing the CD at
shock location (source: Raymer, 1999)
 2. compressible flow/ supersonic

Supersonic Flow to blunt body

Produces normal shock, oblique shock, and

Mach wave pattern

Shock waves produce a loss of stagnation

pressure (but not total energy) in the local
flow.
Non- isentropic flow equations are used to
estimate the conditions behind the shock
waves.
 2. compressible flow/ supersonic

- At supersonic speeds, the wave

drag coefficient reduces with
Mach number, roughly in
accordance with supersonic wave
drag theory.

- Ackerett’s theory for symmetrical

aerofoils gives:
 2. compressible flow/ supersonic
Flow around the Future
Supersonic Transport
Aircraft
 2. compressible flow/ supersonic
temperature distribution on the aircraft surface

subsonic flow passing a civilian aircraft

Supersonic flow passing a fighter aircraft
 2. compressible flow/ hypersonic

Above about Mach 5, the hypersonic regime is entered. Shock waves continue
to increase in strength, bending back to form a critical angle with the airframe
surfaces & there are multiple shock wave and interference effects.

Few equations of supersonic flow no longer apply. Surface friction of the air
flowing along any surface raises skin temperatures to many times that of the
surrounding atmosphere. Airframe design is a major systems challenge
& compromises are necessary for the design to function acceptably at different
operational conditions.
Fig. C1

2. compressible flow/ hypersonic

Space shuttle in hypersonic flight. Although properties of the gas  change
through the shock wave, the gasses must still obey thermodynamic laws
and i.e. equation of state if we assume air is perfect gas.
 2. compressible flow/ hypersonic
Green solution super technology hypersonic aircraft:
future a hydrogen-fuelled hypersonic aircraft will be designed for
travel at speed of Mach 5.5, could fly from Brussels to Sydney in 4.6
hours. (that's 10,407 miles.)
There's even talk of an engine that could propel the craft to Mach 8.
 3. Equations in high speed flow
1. Normal shock wave equations

p2

1
p1   1

2M 1     1
2

2  M 1    1
2
2
M2 
2M 1     1
2

2 M 1    1
2


1 2  M 1 2    1

2 2M 1     1
 
2
T2
 2     1 M 1
T1    1 2 M 1 2
1 
Pt 2     1   1     1 M  2  1
  
1

Pt1  2M 12     1      1 M 1  2 
2
 3. Equations in high speed flow
2. Stagnation and static relations

  1 2 
T0  T 1  M 
 2 


P0  P 1  0.5   1 M 2   /  1

 0   1  0.5   1 M 2 
1 /  1
 3. Equations in high speed flow
3. Nozzle in supersonic speed

The relation between upstream area and first throat:

 1
A 1 1      1 / 2 M 
2 2   1
  
A * M      1 / 2 
(M at upstream shock wave)

The relation between first and second throat:

A2*  5  M 2   7 M 2  1
0.5 2.5

 (M at downstream shock wave)

AT 216M 6
 Example 1

• An aircraft flies at -31 degrees of

centigrade. Estimate static pressure,
density and the altitude.
 Solution to Example 1

Note that in an ISA atmosphere below 11 km:

•P = P0(1 − 2.2558 × 10−5h)5.2559 N.m−2
•T = T0 − 0.0065h K

Where h is measured in metres, note 1 ft = 0.3048 m.

•h=
•ρ=

P0 = 101325 N.m−2
T0 = 288.15 K
ρ0 = 1.225
γ = 1.4
Rg = 287
J.kg−1.K−1
 Example 2

• An aircraft flies at -31 degrees of centigrade and 85kPa

static pressure where the Mach number is 0.65. What
pressure the pitot tube shows?
 Answer to example 2

Pt = Ps + 0.5 x ρV2 Pt=85000+(0.5*(85000/RT)*(0.65)² *1.4*R*T=110,000

PT=85000 (1+0.2* (0.65)² ) 3.5 =112,907 Pa

P0 = 101325
N.m−2
T0 = 288.15 K
ρ0 = 1.225
kg.m−3
γ = 1.4
g = 9.81 m.s−2
Rg = 287
J.kg−1.K−1
 Example 3

If upstream flow of a normal shock wave is at Mach 1.4 at

pressure and temperature of 92kPa and 27 Degree of centigrade,
find the stagnation density ratio of flow and also the flow speed.
Do you expect Lambda phenomena?
sources