MEASUREMENT OF

VARIABLES: OPERATIONAL
DEFINITION AND SCALES

Chapter 8 and 9
Introduction

■ Measurement of the variables in the theoretical framework is

an essential part of research and an important aspect of
research design.
■ Unless the variables are measured in some way, we will not be
able to test our hypotheses and find answers to complex
research issues.
HOW VARIABLES ARE MEASURED

■ Certain things lend themselves to easy measurement through the use of

appropriate measuring instruments, as for example, physiological
phenomena pertaining to human beings such as blood pressure, pulse
rates, and body temperature, as well as certain physical attributes such as
height and weight.
■ When we get into the people‘s subjective feelings, attitudes, and
perceptions, the measurement of these factors or variables becomes
difficult. This is one of the aspects of organizational behavior and
management research that adds to the complexity of research studies.
Two types of variables

■ One lends itself to objective and precise measurement

■ The other does not lend itself to accurate measurement because
of its subjective nature.
HOW VARIABLES ARE MEASURED

■ Reduce abstract notions or concepts to observable behaviors or

characteristics.
■ Reduction of abstract concepts to make them measurable in a
tangible way is called operationalizing the concept.
Operational definition

■ Operationalizing, or operationally defining a concept to make

it measurable is done by looking at the behavioral dimensions,
or properties denoted by the concept.
■ These are then translated into observable and measurable
elements so as to develop measurement of the concept.
■ Operationally defining a concept involves a series of steps.
OPERATIONALIZING THE CONCEPT
OF LEARNING
■ How can we measure the abstract concept called learning?
■ We need to define the concept operationally and break it down
to observable and measurable behaviors. We divide the concept
into dimensions. The dimensions of learning may well be as
follows:
■ 1. Understanding 2. Retention 3. Application
OPERATIONALIZING THE CONCEPT
OF LEARNING
■ Terms such as understanding, remembering, and applying are
still abstract even though they have helped us to get a better
grasp of what learning is all about. It is necessary to break
these three dimensions into elements so that we can measure
the concept of learning.
 Review of Operational Definition
■ Operational definitions are necessary to measure abstract concepts such as those that
usually fall into the subjective areas of feelings and attitudes.
■ More objective variables such as age or educational level are easily measured
through simple straightforward questions and do not have to be operationally
defined.
■ Measures for many concepts that are relevant in the organizational context have
already been developed by researchers. You note the reference that discusses the
instrument used to tap the concept in the study, and read it.
■ The article will tell you when the measure was developed, by whom, and for how
long it has been in use.
■ Only a well-developed instrument, which has been operationally defined with care,
will be accepted and frequently used by other researchers
Scales

■ After knowing how to operationalize concepts, now we need to measure

them in some manner.
■ A scale is a tool or mechanism by which individuals are distinguished as
to how they differ from one another on the variables of interest to our
study.
■ There are four basic types of scales: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.
Nominal scale

■ A nominal scale is one that allows the researcher to assign

subjects to certain categories or groups.
■ For example, with respect to the variable of gender,
respondents can be grouped into two categories—male and
female.
■ These two groups can be assigned code numbers 1 and 2. These
numbers serve as simple and convenient category labels with
no basic value.
Nominal Scale

■ The information that can be generated from nominal scaling is to

calculate the percentage (or frequency) of males and females in our
sample of respondents.

■ Example
■ If we had interviewed 200 people, and assigned code number 1 to all
male respondents and number 2 to all female respondents, then computer
analysis of the data at the end of the survey may show that 98 of the
respondents are men and 102 are women. This frequency distribution
tells us that 49% of the survey‘s respondents are men and 51% women.
Ordinal scale

■ An ordinal scale ranks data in some order.

■ For example, exercising for 20 minutes is good, for 30 minutes is better, for
40 minutes is best.
■ The preference can be ranked (e.g., from best to worst; first to last) and
numbered 1, 2, and so on.
■ The ordinal scale provides more information than the nominal scale.
■ The ordinal scale goes beyond differentiating the categories to providing
information on how respondents distinguish them by rank-ordering them.
Example
■ Take a look at the example on next slide.  In each case, we
know that a #4 is better than a #3 or #2, but we don’t know–
and cannot quantify–how much better it is.  For example, is the
difference between “OK” and “Unhappy” the same as the
difference between “Very Happy” and “Happy?”  We can’t say.
■ Ordinal scales are typically measures of non-numeric concepts
like satisfaction, happiness, discomfort, etc.
Interval scale
■ Measures the degree of the differences in the preferences
among the individuals.
■ Sets data on a continuum.
■ It measures the distance between any points.
■ The interval scale not only groups individuals according to
certain categories and taps the order of these groups, it also
measures the magnitude of the differences in the preferences
among the individuals.
Example
Ratio scale

■ The ratio scale not only measures the degree of the differences between
points on the scale but also taps the proportions in the differences.
■ The weighing balance is a good example of a ratio scale. It has allows us
to calculate the ratio of the weights of two individuals. For instance, a
person weighing 250 pounds is twice as heavy as one who weighs 125
pounds. Note that multiplying or dividing both of these numbers (250 and
125) by any given number will preserve the ratio of 2:1.
Ratio scale

■ Ratio scales are usually used in organizational research when exact

numbers on objective (as opposed to subjective) factors are called for, as
in the following questions:
The differences between scales
Exercise

■ Develop an ordinal scale for consumer preferences for different

brands of soft drinks.
Developing Scales

■ The four types of scales that can be used to measure the operationally defined
dimensions and elements of a variable are:
■ Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio scales.
■ It is necessary to examine the methods of scaling (assigning numbers or symbols) to
draw the attitudinal responses of subjects toward objects, events, or persons.
■ Categories of attitudinal scales:
 The Rating Scales
 The Ranking Scales
■ Rating scales have several response categories and are used to
bring about responses with regard to the object, event, or
person studied.
Rating Scales

The following rating scales are often used in organizational

research.
■ Dichotomous scale Category scale
■ Likert scale
■ Semantic Differential Scale
■ Numerical scale
Dichotomous Scale

■ Is used to elicit a Yes or No answer.

■ (Note that a nominal scale is used to produce the response)
■ Example
■ Do you own a car? Yes No
Category Scale

It uses multiple items to produce a single response.

Example
■ Where in Pakistan do you reside?
■ Rawalpindi
■ Islamabad
■ Lahore
■ Karachi
Likert Scale

Is designed to examine how strongly subjects agree or disagree with

statements on a 5-point scale as following:
■ This is an Interval scale and the differences in responses
between any two points on the scale remain the same.
Semantic Differential Scale

■ We use this scale when several attributes are identified at the

extremes of the scale. This is measured as an interval scale. For
instance, the scale would employ such terms as:
■ Good – Bad
■ Strong – Weak
■ Hot – Cold
■ Example
What is your opinion on your supervisor?
■ Responsive--------------Unresponsive
■ Beautiful-----------------Ugly
■ Courageous-------------Nervous
Numerical Scale

■ Is similar to the semantic differential scale, with the difference

that numbers on a 5-points or 7-points scale are provided, as
illustrated in the following example:
Ranking Scale

■ Ranking scales are used to tap preferences between two or among more
objects or items (ordinal in nature).
■ However, such ranking may not give definitive clues to some of the
answers sought.
■ For instance, let us say there are four product lines and the manager seeks
information that would help decide which product line should get the
most attention. Let us also assume that 35% of the respondents choose
the first product, 25% the second, and 20% choose each of products three
and four as of importance to them. The manager cannot then conclude
that the first product is the most preferred since 65% of the respondents
did not choose that product!
Forced choice

■ The forced choice enables respondents to rank objects relative to one another, among
the alternatives provided. This is easier for the respondents, particularly if the number of
choices to be ranked is limited in number.
■ Example:
Comparative scale

■ The comparative scale provides a benchmark or a point of reference to assess attitudes

toward the current object, event, or situation under study.
■ Example:
Goodness of measures

We need to assess the goodness of the measures developed. That

is, we need to be reasonably sure that the instruments we use in
our research do indeed measure the variables they are supposed
to, and that they measure them accurately.
Reliability

■ Reliability is another term for consistency. It is a measure of

repeatability.
■ For example, If one person takes the same personality test
several times and always receives the same results, the test is
reliable.
■ If you take a math test every week for five weeks and always
obtain the same score, then that measure of your mathematical
skill level would be considered to be perfectly reliable.
Validity

■ A test is valid if it measures what it is supposed to measure. It is a

measure of credibility.
■ The relationship between scores on a selection tool and a relevant
criterion, such as job performance.
■ The extent to which the technique measures the intended knowledge,
skill, or ability. In the selection context, it is the extent to which scores on
a test or interview correspond to actual job performance.

■ For example, If the results of the personality test claimed that a very shy
person was in fact outgoing, the test would be invalid.
The End