ECE 6382

Fall 2020

David R. Jackson

Notes 1
Introduction to Complex Variables

Notes are adapted from D. R. Wilton, Dept. of ECE

1
 Some Applications of Complex Variables

 Phasor-domain analysis in physics and engineering

 Laplace and Fourier transforms
 Evaluation of integrals
 Asymptotics (method of steepest descent)
 Conformal Mapping (solution of Laplace’s equation)
 Radiation physics (branch cuts, poles)

2
 Complex Arithmetic and Algebra

A complex number z may be thought of simply as an ordered pair

of real numbers (x, y) with rules for addition, multiplication, etc.

z  x  iy  i ( j )  1, x  Re z , y  Im z   z   x, y 
 r  cos   i sin   (from figure) z plane
 rei (Euler formula (not yet proven!)) z
y
 r  (angle notation) Note: In Euler's formula, the r
angle  must be in radians. 
 z  arg z (angle notation)
x
r  z  x  y  magnitude of z
2 2

 y Argand diagram
  arg z  tan 1    argument or phase of z (polar form)
x
x  r cos  , y  r sin 

Note: Usually we will use i to denote the square- root of -1.

However, we will often switch to using j when we are doing an engineering example.
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 Complex Arithmetic and Algebra
Note on phase angle (argument):
The phase angle  is non-unique. We
can add any multiple of 2 (360o) to it.
This does not change x and y.
z plane
z
Principal branch: y
r
The most common choice 
for the “principal branch” is*:

     x

Note:
Adding multiples of 2 to  will affect    p  2 n
some functions, but not others.
   p  

Examples: f  z   z  no effect 
f  z   z1/2  will effect  *e.g., the one that Matlab uses
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 Complex Arithmetic and Algebra (cont.)

Addition / subtraction :
z1  z2   x1  iy1    x2  iy2 
  x1  x2   i  y1  y2 

Geometrically, this works the same way and adding and subtracting two-dimensional vectors:

z1  z2
y y
z1 “tip-to-tail rule” z1
z2 z2
z1  z2
x x

 z2
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 Complex Arithmetic and Algebra (cont.)
Multiplication :
z1 z2   x1  iy1   x2  iy2 
  x1 x2  y1 y2   i  x1 y2  x2 y1  Note:
We can say that
 i 2   0  i1  0  i1   1
i  1
z1 z2   r1e   r e   rr e
i1 i 2 i  1  2 
2 1 2
But we need to be careful to properly
interpret the square root (using the
principal branch). This is what the
Division : radical sign usually denotes.
  1
x  iy1 x2  iy2
z1 / z2  1 
x2  iy2 x2  iy2
x x  y1 y2  i ( y1 x2  y2 x1 )  x x  y1 y2 y1 x2  y2 x1 
 1 2  z1 / z2   1 22 , 2 
x22  y22  x2  y 2
2
x2  y22 
 r  i  
z1 / z2   r1ei1  /  r2ei2    1  e  1 2 
 r2  Example : 1 / i  i

Multiplication and division are easier in polar form!

6
 Complex Arithmetic and Algebra (cont.)

Important points:
 We can multiply and divide complex numbers. We cannot divide two-
dimensional vectors.
 We can, however, multiply two-dimensional vectors in two different
ways (dot product and cross product).

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Complex Arithmetic and Algebra (cont.)
y

z
r 
x

r
z*

Conjugation :
z *   x  iy 
z1 z2* z1 z2*
Note : z1 / z2   2
z2 z2* z2
Magnitude :
r z  x 2  y 2  z z*   re   re 
i  i

8
 Euler’s Formula
Recall :

x2 x3 xn
e  1 x 
x
   
2! 3! n 0 n !

Define extension to a complex variable ( x  z  x  iy) :


z2 z3 zn
e  1 z    
z

2! 3!

n 0 n !
(converges for all z ) Leonhard Euler

 i 
n

2 4  3 5 
 e i
 1     i      
n 0 n ! 2! 4!  3! 5! 
 cos   i sin 
Note: The variable  here
i  i
 e  cos   i sin  e  cos   i sin  is usually taken to be real,
but it does not have to be.

More generally,
eiz  cos z  i sin z e  iz  cos z  i sin z

eiz  e  iz eiz  e  iz
 cos z  sin z 
2 2i
e z  e z e z  e z ez  e z
 cos  iz    cosh z , sin  iz    i  i sinh z
2 2i 2 9
 Application to Trigonometric Identities
Many trigonometric identities follow from a simple application of Euler's formula :

 ei 2  cos 2  i sin 2
On the other hand,
ei 2   ei    cos   i sin    cos 2   sin 2   i  2 cos  sin  
2 2

Equating real and imaginary parts of the two expressions yields two identities :
cos 2  cos 2   sin 2 
sin 2  2 cos  sin 

e  cos  1   2   i sin  1   2 
i 1  2 

On the other hand,
e
i 1  2 
 ei1 e  i2
  cos 1  i sin 1   cos  2  i sin  2 
  cos 1 cos  2 sin 1 sin  2   i  sin 1 cos  2  cos 1 sin  2 
Equating real and imaginary parts yields :
cos  1   2   cos 1 cos  2 sin 1 sin  2
sin  1   2   sin 1 cos  2  cos 1 sin  2

10
 DeMoivre’s Theorem

 
n
 z n  rei  r n ein  r n  cos n  i sin n  (DeMoivre's Theorem)

 Note that for n an integer, the result is independent of how  is measured

n
 rei  2 k    r n ei  n 2 kn   r n cos n  2 kn  i sin n  2 kn  (k an integer)



     
 r n  cos n  i sin n 
 zn

y
z
z 

x
  2 k
  2 k

Abraham de Moivre

11
 Roots of a Complex Number
1
wz n

 In this case, the resultis not independent of how  is measured.

1
   n roots
  
i   2 k   n
   
1 i n  2 kn
  re
1 1
zn   r ne  rn  cos   2 k  i sin   2 k  , k  0,1, 2, n  1
 n n n n 
 
1

 i 2 i 2 k  3  i  i 2 k   
 2 k   i sin     2 k   ,
1
Example :  8i    3 8e   2e 6 3  2 cos   k  0,1, 2
    6 3   6 3 
       3 1
 2  cos     i sin      2 cos  30   i sin  30    2  i   3  i,
  6  6   2 2
   2    2  
 2  cos      i sin      2 cos  90   i sin  90    2 i,
  6 3   6 3  
   4    4  
 2  cos      i sin      2 cos  210   i sin  210     3  i,
  6 3   6 3 

12
 Roots of a Complex Number (cont.)
1/3
y w  z1/3   8i  v
Example (cont.)
z w  u  iv w
 3  i, x
1  u
  8i  3   2i,
 8i
 3  i
Im

1120
Note that the n th root of z can also be expressed in terms
1 0
of the n th root of unity :
Re
1
1
  re
i    2 k   n 
1 i n 2 kn  1 i i 2 kn Cube root
  
z n n
r e n
r en e 1 240 of unity
      (n = 3)
"principal" n th root
branch of  of unity
2 k 2 k
 
1 1
i 2 kn
where  1 n
 e i 2 k n
e  cos  i sin , k  0,1, , n  1
 n n
n th root
of unity
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