Finite Element Primer for Engineers

Mike Barton & S. D. Rajan

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 Finite Element Primer for Engineers
Contents
• Introduction to the Finite Element Method (FEM)
• Steps in Using the FEM: An Example from Solid
Mechanics
• Examples
• Commercial FEM Software
• Competing Technologies
• Future Trends
• Internet Resources
• References

©, 2000, Barton & Rajan 2

 Foreword

This document was submitted as a term paper for the graduate engineering course
CEE598 Finite Elements for Engineers, offered at Arizona State University.

The objective of this article is to provide engineers with a brief introduction to the
finite element method (FEM). The article includes an overview of the FEM,
including a brief history of its origins. The theoretical basis for the FEM is discussed,
with emphasis on the basic methodologies, assumptions, and advantages (and
limitations) of the method. Next, the basic steps that must be performed in any FEM
analysis are illustrated (using an example from solid mechanics), and FEM examples
are provided for problems from other engineering disciplines.

To aid the reader in selecting a FEM software package, a brief survey of currently
available FEM software is presented, together with a discussion of alternative
analysis techniques that might be considered in lieu of the FEM. Finally, we examine
future trends in the FEM.

References are provided for those desiring further information on the FEM (including
selected Internet references.)

©, 2000, Barton & Rajan 3

 Contents
• Introduction to the Finite Element Method (FEM)
• Steps in Using the FEM (an Example from Solid
Mechanics)
• Examples
• Commercial FEM Software
• Competing Technologies
• Future Trends
• Internet Resources
• References

©, 2000, Barton & Rajan 4

 Finite Element Method Defined

• Many problems in engineering and applied science are

governed by differential or integral equations.

• The solutions to these equations would provide an exact,

closed-form solution to the particular problem being
studied.

• However, complexities in the geometry, properties and in

the boundary conditions that are seen in most real-world
problems usually means that an exact solution cannot be
obtained or obtained in a reasonable amount of time.

©, 2000, Barton & Rajan 5

 Finite Element Method Defined (cont.)

• Current product design cycle times imply that engineers

must obtain design solutions in a ‘short’ amount of time.

• They are content to obtain approximate solutions that can

be readily obtained in a reasonable time frame, and with
reasonable effort. The FEM is one such approximate
solution technique.

• The FEM is a numerical procedure for obtaining

approximate solutions to many of the problems encountered
in engineering analysis.

©, 2000, Barton & Rajan 6

 Finite Element Method Defined (cont.)
• In the FEM, a complex region defining a continuum is
discretized into simple geometric shapes called elements.

• The properties and the governing relationships are assumed

over these elements and expressed mathematically in terms of
unknown values at specific points in the elements called nodes.

• An assembly process is used to link the individual elements

to the given system. When the effects of loads and boundary
conditions are considered, a set of linear or nonlinear algebraic
equations is usually obtained.

• Solution of these equations gives the approximate behavior of

the continuum or system.

©, 2000, Barton & Rajan 7

 Finite Element Method Defined
(cont.)
• The continuum has an infinite number of degrees-of-freedom
(DOF), while the discretized model has a finite number of
DOF. This is the origin of the name, finite element method.

• The number of equations is usually rather large for most real-

world applications of the FEM, and requires the computational
power of the digital computer. The FEM has little practical
value if the digital computer were not available.

• Advances in and ready availability of computers and software

has brought the FEM within reach of engineers working in
small industries, and even students.

©, 2000, Barton & Rajan 8

 Finite Element Method Defined
(cont.)
Two features of the finite element method are worth noting.

• The piecewise approximation of the physical field

(continuum) on finite elements provides good precision even
with simple approximating functions. Simply increasing the
number of elements can achieve increasing precision.

• The locality of the approximation leads to sparse equation

systems for a discretized problem. This helps to ease the
solution of problems having very large numbers of nodal
unknowns. It is not uncommon today to solve systems
containing a million primary unknowns.

©, 2000, Barton & Rajan 9

 Origins of the Finite Element
Method
• It is difficult to document the exact origin of the FEM, because the
basic concepts have evolved over a period of 150 or more years.

• The term finite element was first coined by Clough in 1960. In the
early 1960s, engineers used the method for approximate solution of
problems in stress analysis, fluid flow, heat transfer, and other
areas.

• The first book on the FEM by Zienkiewicz and Chung was

published in 1967.

• In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the FEM was applied to a wide
variety of engineering problems.

©, 2000, Barton & Rajan 10

 Origins of the Finite Element Method
(cont.)
• The 1970s marked advances in mathematical treatments, including
the development of new elements, and convergence studies.

• Most commercial FEM software packages originated in the 1970s

(ABAQUS, ADINA, ANSYS, MARK, PAFEC) and 1980s
(FENRIS, LARSTRAN ‘80, SESAM ‘80.)

• The FEM is one of the most important developments in

computational methods to occur in the 20th century. In just a few
decades, the method has evolved from one with applications in
structural engineering to a widely utilized and richly varied
computational approach for many scientific and technological areas.

©, 2000, Barton & Rajan 11

 How can the FEM Help the Design Engineer?

• The FEM offers many important advantages to the design engineer:

• Easily applied to complex, irregular-shaped objects composed

of several different materials and having complex boundary
conditions.

• Applicable to steady-state, time dependent and eigenvalue

problems.

• Applicable to linear and nonlinear problems.

• One method can solve a wide variety of problems, including

problems in solid mechanics, fluid mechanics, chemical
reactions, electromagnetics, biomechanics, heat transfer and
acoustics, to name a few.
©, 2000, Barton & Rajan 12
 How can the FEM Help the Design Engineer?
(cont.)
• General-purpose FEM software packages are available at
reasonable cost, and can be readily executed on
microcomputers, including workstations and PCs.

• The FEM can be coupled to CAD programs to facilitate solid

modeling and mesh generation.

• Many FEM software packages feature GUI interfaces, auto-

meshers, and sophisticated postprocessors and graphics to speed
the analysis and make pre and post-processing more user-
friendly.

©, 2000, Barton & Rajan 13

 How can the FEM Help the Design Organization?
• Simulation using the FEM also offers important business advantages to
the design organization:

• Reduced testing and redesign costs thereby shortening the product

development time.

• Identify issues in designs before tooling is committed.

• Refine components before dependencies to other components

prohibit changes.

• Optimize performance before prototyping.

• Discover design problems before litigation.

• Allow more time for designers to use engineering judgement, and

less time “turning the crank.”

©, 2000, Barton & Rajan 14

 Theoretical Basis: Formulating Element
Equations
• Several approaches can be used to transform the physical
formulation of a problem to its finite element discrete analogue.

• If the physical formulation of the problem is described as a

differential equation, then the most popular solution method is
the Method of Weighted Residuals.

• If the physical problem can be formulated as the minimization

of a functional, then the Variational Formulation is usually
used.

©, 2000, Barton & Rajan 15

 Theoretical Basis: MWR
• One family of methods used to numerically solve differential equations
are called the methods of weighted residuals (MWR).

• In the MWR, an approximate solution is substituted into the differential

equation. Since the approximate solution does not identically satisfy the
equation, a residual, or error term, results.

Consider a differential equation

Dy’’(x) + Q = 0 (1)

Suppose that y = h(x) is an approximate solution to (1). Substitution then

gives Dh’’(x) + Q = R, where R is a nonzero residual. The MWR then
requires that

Wi(x)R(x) = 0 (2)

where Wi(x) are the weighting functions. The number of weighting

functions equals the number of unknown coefficients in the approximate
solution.
©, 2000, Barton & Rajan 16
 Theoretical Basis: Galerkin’s Method

• There are several choices for the weighting functions, Wi.

• In the Galerkin’s method, the weighting functions are the same

functions that were used in the approximating equation.

• The Galerkin’s method yields the same results as the variational

method when applied to differential equations that are self-adjoint.

• The MWR is therefore an integral solution method.

• Many readers may find it unusual to see a numerical solution that

is based on an integral formulation.

©, 2000, Barton & Rajan 17

 Theoretical Basis: Variational Method
• The variational method involves the integral of a function
that produces a number. Each new function produces a new
number.

• The function that produces the lowest number has the

additional property of satisfying a specific differential equation.

• Consider the integral

D/2 y’’(x) - Qy]dx = 0. (1)

The numerical value of can be calculated given a specific

equation y = f(x). Variational calculus shows that the
particular equation y = g(x) which yields the lowest numerical
value for is the solution to the differential equation

Dy’’(x) + Q = 0. (2)
©, 2000, Barton & Rajan 18
 Theoretical Basis: Variational Method (cont.)

• In solid mechanics, the so-called Rayeigh-Ritz technique

uses the Theorem of Minimum Potential Energy (with the
potential energy being the functional, ) to develop the
element equations.

• The trial solution that gives the minimum value of is the
approximate solution.

• In other specialty areas, a variational principle can usually be

found.

©, 2000, Barton & Rajan 19

 Sources of Error in the FEM
• The three main sources of error in a typical FEM solution are
discretization errors, formulation errors and numerical errors.

• Discretization error results from transforming the physical system

(continuum) into a finite element model, and can be related to
modeling the boundary shape, the boundary conditions, etc.

Discretization error due to poor geometry Discretization error effectively eliminated.

©, 2000, Barton & Rajan representation. 20
 Sources of Error in the FEM (cont.)
• Formulation error results from the use of elements that don't precisely
describe the behavior of the physical problem.
• Elements which are used to model physical problems for which they are not
suited are sometimes referred to as ill-conditioned or mathematically
unsuitable elements.
• For example a particular finite element might be formulated on the
assumption that displacements vary in a linear manner over the domain.
Such an element will produce no formulation error when it is used to model a
linearly varying physical problem (linear varying displacement field in this
example), but would create a significant formulation error if it used to
represent a quadratic or cubic varying displacement field.

©, 2000, Barton & Rajan 21

 Sources of Error in the FEM (cont.)

• Numerical error occurs as a result of numerical

calculation procedures, and includes truncation errors and
round off errors.
• Numerical error is therefore a problem mainly concerning
the FEM vendors and developers.
• The user can also contribute to the numerical accuracy,
for example, by specifying a physical quantity, say
Young’s modulus, E, to an inadequate number of decimal
places.

©, 2000, Barton & Rajan 22

 Advantages of the Finite Element Method
• Can readily handle complex geometry:
» The heart and power of the FEM.
• Can handle complex analysis types:
» Vibration
» Transients
» Nonlinear
» Heat transfer
» Fluids
• Can handle complex loading:
» Node-based loading (point loads).
» Element-based loading (pressure, thermal, inertial
forces).
» Time or frequency dependent loading.
• Can handle complex restraints:
» Indeterminate structures can be analyzed.
©, 2000, Barton & Rajan 23
 Advantages of the Finite Element Method (cont.)
• Can handle bodies comprised of nonhomogeneous materials:
» Every element in the model could be assigned a different set of
material properties.
• Can handle bodies comprised of nonisotropic materials:
» Orthotropic
» Anisotropic
• Special material effects are handled:
» Temperature dependent properties.
» Plasticity
» Creep
» Swelling
• Special geometric effects can be modeled:
» Large displacements.
» Large rotations.
» Contact (gap) condition.
©, 2000, Barton & Rajan 24
 Disadvantages of the Finite Element Method
• A specific numerical result is obtained for a specific problem. A
general closed-form solution, which would permit one to
examine system response to changes in various parameters, is
not produced.

• The FEM is applied to an approximation of the mathematical

model of a system (the source of so-called inherited errors.)

• Experience and judgment are needed in order to construct a

good finite element model.

• A powerful computer and reliable FEM software are essential.

• Input and output data may be large and tedious to prepare and
interpret.

©, 2000, Barton & Rajan 25

 Disadvantages of the Finite Element Method
(cont.)
• Numerical problems:
» Computers only carry a finite number of significant digits.
» Round off and error accumulation.
» Can help the situation by not attaching stiff (small) elements
to flexible (large) elements.
• Susceptible to user-introduced modeling errors:
» Poor choice of element types.
» Distorted elements.
» Geometry not adequately modeled.
• Certain effects not automatically included:
» Buckling
» Large deflections and rotations.
» Material nonlinearities .
» Other nonlinearities.
©, 2000, Barton & Rajan 26