SANKAR POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS) SANKAR NAGAR

DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

N342- MEASUREMENTS,INSTRUMENTATION AND TRANDUCERS

N-SCHEME

By
S.Dilip kumar
lecturer
POWER IN D.C CIRCUITS :

• the power indicated by the instruments is equal to the power consumed by the load plus the power
consumed by the instrument nearest to the load terminals. In order to obtain the true power,
corrections must be applied for power loss in instruments. But, under normal conditions, the
power loss in instruments is quite small as compared with the load power, and therefore, the error
introduced is small.
• It is advantageous to use a wattmeter in place of ammeter and voltmeter. Wattmeter gives
direct reading of power and there is no need of multiplying two readings. Accuracy is also
increased.
POWER IN AC CIRCUITS :
• Where, v and i are the instantaneous values of voltage and current.
• If both current and voltage are sinusoidal, the current lags the
voltages by an angle Ø.
• If v = Vmsinωt, i = Imsin(ωt-Ø)
• P = vi =(Vmsinωt)( Imsin(ωt-Ø))
• It can be derived that,
• Average power P =
• = VI cosØ
ELECTRODYNAMOMETER TYPE
WATTMETER
• The fixed coils, wound with heavy wire, carry the current of the load. They are
divided into two halves. For basic measurements, these two halves are connected in
series. To increase the wattmeter current rangeto twice its original value, these two
halves of current coils are to be connected in parallel. The moving coil is mounted
on a pivoted spindle and embraced by the two halves of fixed coils. A series resistor is
used in the voltage circuit to limit the current through it, to a small value.
• Thus the deflection torque for the pointer movement is produced by fixed and
moving coils. Control torque is obtained by control springs as in the case of PMMC
instruments. For damping torque, a light aluminium vane moves in a sector shaped
box (air friction damping) is used.
• Dynamometer wattmeter use mirror type scales and knife edge pointers, to
remove reading errors due to parallax.
•a
• Torque equation:
• Power P = vi
• where v=instantaneous voltage,
• i= instantaneous current.
• If v = Vmsinθ , i = Imsin(θ-Ø)
• Therefore P = vi =(Vmsinθ)( Imsin(θ-Ø))
• Mean power is Solving we get
• P= VI cosØ (where V& I are R.M.S value of voltage & current)
• Deflecting torque Td αVI COSθ
• Controlling torque Tcαθ
• Under steady state condition Td=Tc
• Therefore θ POWER
• Thus the wattmeter measures the power.
• LPF WATTMETERS :
• Measurement of power in circuits having low power factor by ordinary electrodynamometer
wattmeter is difficult and inaccurate, because of the following reasons.
• The deflecting torque on the moving system is small, even when the current and pressure coils
are fully excited.
• Errors are introduced because inductance of pressure coil will be high.
• Special features are incorporated in an electrodynamometer wattmeter to make it a low power
factor type wattmeter. They are,
• Pressure coil current
• Compensation for pressure coil current
• Compensation for pressure coil inductance
• Small control torque
• PRESSURE COIL CURRENT
• The pressure coil circuit is designed to have a low value of resistance, so
that the current flowing through it is increased, to give an increased
operating torque. The pressure coil current in a LPF wattmeter may be 10
times of high power factor wattmeter.
• COMPENSATION FOR PRESSURE COIL CURRENT
• The power measured by a LPF wattmeter is small and current is high
because of this low power factor. Connection as shown in 3.3(a) cannot
be used because, due to high load current there would be a high power
loss in the current coil and therefore, the wattmeter will give a large error.
•a
• Wattmeter connections
•
• Compensation for power loss in pressure coil circuit
• The error caused by pressure coil inductance is given by the
expression VIsinØtanβ, where V and I are the RMS values of voltage
and current, Ø is the power factor angle and β is the angle between
pressure coil current and pressure coil voltage.
• With low power factor, Ø is large and therefore, the error is also
large. Hence, in a LPF wattmeter, compensation should be provided
for the error caused by inductance of pressure coil. This is done by
connecting a capacitor across part of series resistance in the pressure
coil circuit as shown in fig 3.5
• Compensation for inductance of pressure coil circuit Low Power factor wattmeter
THREE PHASE WATTMETER (2 ELEMENT WATTMETER)

• A dynamometer type three phase wattmeter consists of two separate

wattmeter movements, together in one case, with two moving coils
mounted on the same spindle,
• 
• There are two current coils and two pressure coils. A current coil together with its pressure coil is known as an element.
Thus a three phase wattmeters has two elements and called a “two element wattmeter”.
• The connections of two elements of a three phase wattmeter are the same as that for two wattmeter method using two
single phase wattmeters.
• The torque on each element is directly proportional to the power to be measured by it. The total torque used to deflect
the moving system is the sum of the deflecting torques of the two elements.
• Deflecting torque of element 1αP1,
• Deflecting torque of element 2αP2,
• Total Deflecting torque α (P1 + P2) α P
• Hence, the total deflecting torque on the moving system is directly proportional to the total power. In order to get
correct reading, there should not be any mutual interference between the two elements of the wattmeter. A laminated
iron shield is placed in between the two elements, to eliminate the mutual effects.
• Compensation for mutual inductance effects can be done by using Weston’s method. The arrangement is shown in fig
3.7.
• Resistance ‘R’ may be adjusted to compensate for errors caused by mutual interference.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION TYPE ENERGY METER

• Main parts of 1Ø induction type energy meter are

• Driving system
• Moving system
• Braking system and
• Registering system
the applied voltage.
• The supply voltage is applied across the pressure coil. The pressure coil winding is highly
inductive. Thus the current ‘Ip’ through the pressure coil is proportional to the supply
voltage ‘V’ and lags it by few degrees less than 90°.
• Current ‘Ip’ produces a flux Øp. The flux goes across aluminium disc and produces
driving torque.
• This flux is in phase with current ‘Ip’. The flux ‘Øp’ is proportional to voltage ‘V’ and lags it
by an angle few degrees less than 90°. Since flux ‘Øp’ is alternating in nature, it induces
an eddy emf in the disc, which in turn produces eddy current ‘Iep’.
• The load current ‘I’ flows through the current coil and produces a flux ‘Øs’. This flux is
proportional to the load current and is in phase with it. This flux produces eddy current
‘Ies’ in the disc. Now, the eddy current ‘Ies’ interacts with the flux ‘Øp’, to produce a
torque and eddy current ‘Iep’ interacts with ‘Øs’, to produce another torque. These two
torques are in opposite nature and the net torque is the difference of these two torques.
• Net driving torqueTd = K1ØpØs (f/Z) sinβcosα
• Where, β = phase angle between fluxes Øp and Øs
• = (Δ-Ø)
• ØpV and ØsI
• Therefore Td = K2 VI f/Zsin(Δ-Ø)cosα
• If, f. Z and α are constants, then Td=K3 VI sin(Δ-Ø)
• If ‘N’ is the speed of rotation of aluminium disc, then, breaking torque
• = Tb = K4N
• At steady speed, the driving torque must be equal to braking torque
• K4 N = K3 VI sin (Δ-Ø)
• N = KVIsin(Δ-Ø)
• If Δ = 90°
• N = KVI sin (90-Ø)
• = KVI cos Ø
• N = K X power
• Thus, in order that the speed of rotation is proportional to power, angle Δ should be
equal to 90°. Hence, the flux Øp, must be made to lag the supply voltage by exactly
90°. Total number of revolution of the disc
• = ʃNdt
• = KʃVIcosØdt
• = Kʃ(Power)dt
• = K X (Energy )
 THREE PHASE ENERGY METERS
• TWO ELEMENT THREE PHASE ENERGY METER
• 2 element energy meter used for 3Ø, 3 wire systems. It is provided with 2
discs, one for each element. It is essential that, the driving torque of the two
elements be exactly equal for equal amounts of power passing through each.
Thus, in addition to normal compensating devices attached to each element,
an adjustable magnetic shunt is provided on one or both the elements to
balance the torques of the two. The necessary adjustment is made with the
coils energised from a single phase supply. The pressure coils are connected in
parallel and the current coils in series, in such a manner, that the torque
produced by the two elements oppose each other. The magnetic shunt is
adjusted to a position, where the two torques are exactly equal and opposite,
and therefore, there is no rotation of disc.
DIGITAL ENERGYMETER:

• Digital energymeters display the energy used on an LCD or LED display, and some can also transmit
readings to remote places. In addition to measuring energy used, these meters can also record other
parameters of the load and supply, such as instantaneous and maximum demands, voltages, power
factor and reactive power etc. They can also support to record the amount of energy used during on-
peak and off-peak hours.
• The digital energymeter has a power supply, ametering circuit, a processing and communication
circuit (microprocessor/microcontroller) and other add on modules such as RTC (Real Time Clock), LCD
( Liquid Crystal Display), communication ports, modules and so on.
• The metering circuit is given the voltage and current inputs, through current transformer and
potential transformer and has a voltages reference, followed by an ADC (Analog to Digital convertor)
section, to convert the analog inputs into digital forms. These inputs are then processed using a digital
signal processor, to calculate various metering parameters.
• The processing and communication section has the responsibility of calculating various desired
quantities, from the digital values generated by the metering section. This has the responsibility of
communicating and interfacings with other ‘add on modules’ connected as slaves to it.
Dynamometer type power factor meter for 3
phase load
• Construction
• This instrument are used when the load is balanced
• The two moving (pressure) coils A & B are positioned 120degree apart and connected across two different phases
of supply circuits.
• The fixed coil is connected with third phase of supply and carrying the current in the line. So there is no phase
splitting. Each coil has series resistance.
• Coil A is connected across phases R & Y through Resistance R.
• Coil B is connected across phases R & B through Resistance R. therefore currents are in phases with voltage.
• Working
• Since the coils A & B are 120degree apart the pointer is deflected with the phase difference.
• When voltage through coil A & B are in phase respectively with their currents torque T A=TB at equilibrium.
• TA& TB act in opposite directions and the moving system takes position due to the phase angle of the circuit.
• At equilibrium position, angular deflection of coils from reference plane is the measurement of phase angle of the
system.
TRIVECTOR METER
• A trivector meter measures KVAh and also KVA of maximum demand.
• It measures active, reactive power and apparent power with a help of single meter,
• It is clear from the name “Tri” that indicates the three powers.It may be electronic type (or) electro mechanical
type. Power triangle gives the sum of KW, KVAR,KVA…..
• Types:
• 3Phase3wire Trivector meters
• 3phase 4wire Trivector meters
• It may be four quadrants (or) may not be. Relation between three powers: It measures 3 type of power:
• Apparent power VA=V*I
• Active power Watt=V*I*cosФ
• Reactive power VAR=V*I*sinФ
• Where V=applied voltage
• I=Resultant current
• Ф=phase angle
• Landis and GYrTrivector meter
• This meter measures KVAh and KVA of maximum demand
• It consists of a KWh meter and a reactive KVAh meter with a special summator mounted between them. The summator
is driven by both the meters through a complicated gearing which makes the summator to register KVAh at all
powerfactor.
• The gear arrangement of the system is driven as:
• When the phase angle is small it is operated by KWh meter  When the phase angle is high it is driven by KVArh reactors
meter
• For in between the values of high & low the summator drives the gear.
• Construction:
• The circuit consists of five gears. Each gear drives the final gear by a rachet coupling ,linked with a common shaft.
• The common shaft of KVAh is denoted as 1 to5
• The shaft is operated by a planet wheel
• At a particular phase only one gear is faster than the other.
• KVAh meter shaft will follow the faster running gear only
• Working
•
• For Zero power factor load last drive no 5 i.e reactive power is faster speed
and so KVAh meter follows it and denote zero pf. All the others are ideal.
• For unity power fact or loadgear 1 KWh at higher speed and so KVAh
followed it and denote unity pf. Others are ideal.
• For intermediate power factor loads, the gear systems 2,3& 4 are active
and the resultant speeds of KWh and KVARh meters driven by the
summator. The planet wheel will select the final higher speed drive.
Merz price (Average) demand indicator
• This indicator can be used to record either maximum current or maximum power utilized
.These meters can also used to measure the maximum demand in terms of KVAH or KVARH
• Construction
• It consists of a separate dial fitted inside the instrument in which the pointer is moved in
forward direction.
• The pointer is moved by the spindle through a train of gear and pin.
• It consists of a separate dial fitted inside the instrument.
• The pointer is driven forward for an half hour period as an integration period.
• At the end of time period the pointer is disconnected from gear and return to zero and
reconnected to gear by operating mechanism.
• There are a number of variations in construction. The cam may be replaced by an
electromagnetic relay and a clutch can be used for bell crank releasing device.
• Working
• Normally it has the energy recording system and the demand indicating arrangement.The
pointer will move forward for half an hour and the energy consumed is indicated on the
dial.
• The pointer moves to a new position when one half hours energy consumption exceeds
than the preceding.
• A maximum pointer is advanced by the driving pointer but is held by friction.
• The pointer rest on same position when the energy consumption is lower than previous.
• The average demand can be calculated as
• Average demand in KW =Maximum energy recorded over a time interval in KWH
• Time interval in hours
Weston frequency meters
• Weston frequency meter is a moving iron instrument which measures the supplied power system
frequency. Its action depends on the variation in current distribution between two parallel
circuits,one is inductive and the other non inductive
• Construction
• Coil A& B are two fixed coils each having two equal parts.
• These two coils fixed as at which the magnetic axis are perpendicular.
• At the centre long and thin pivoted soft iron spindle is fixed.
• The spindle bearing the needle and carries a pointer which move on a scale.
• There is no controlling device.
• Coil A is connected with inductor LA across resistor RA and coil B serially connected with resistor R E
across an inductor LB
• The inductor L is for the purpose of damping out harmonics in the current through the meter to
eliminate the errors
• Working
• The two coils A and B set up two magnetic fields at right angles to each other.
• It’s magnitude depends upon the current flowing through it.
• The needle movement depends up on the two fields or currents in coil A and B.
• At normal frequency of supply the currents at two coils are same, so that the
needle takes the position at centre.
• When supply frequency increase the current through coil A decreases and current
in B increases so the magnitude of coil A decreases and B increases so the needle
sets itself at the higher frequency.
• When supply frequency decreases have the opposite effect and the needle rests at
lower frequency.
Digital frequency meter

• Meters which indicate the frequency of power supplied with digital readouts are known as
digital frequency meters.
• Principle of operation:
• The signal to be measured is converted into trigger pulses as one pulse for each cycle and
applied to an AND gate
• A pulse of 1sec is applied to other terminal and the number of pulses counted during this
period denotes the frequency by using counter
• The signal may be amplified before being applied to Schmitt trigger
• The Schmitt trigger converts the input signal into square wave with fast rise and fall time
• Then the signal is differentiated and clipped, so that the output of Schmitt trigger is a train
of pulses one pulse for each cycle of the input
• The output pulse of Schmitt trigger are fed to start/stop gate.
• Working
• When the gate is enabled, the input pulses pass through the gate and
fed directly to the electronic counter for counting the incoming
pulses.
• When the gate is disabled the input pulses stopped and the counter
stops counting.
• The counter displays the number of pulses with in the time interval to
start and stop.
• If the interval is known, the unknown frequency can be measured.