Outline…

•. Highways location
• Overview of the location and survey process
• Location surveys in rural areas
• Location surveys in urban areas
• Roads in hilly and snow bound areas
• Highway plans, specifications and components

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Highway Location
• Definition
• An iterative process in which combined skills of an engineer,
surveyor, planner and geologist are employed to examine
the available data to arrive at final location of highway that
would yield highest return on transport investment and
provide the best compromise of all inflicting interests of all
affected by the facility
• Aim
• To provide free flowing, easy riding and high capacity facility
meeting all safety requirements while causing least to
disruption historic, scenic,
industrial and recreational
developments

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4
Highway Location Factors

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Highway Location Principles
• General
• Provide continuous and free flowing traffic
• Controlled access
• Compromised solution to conflicting requirements
• Less destruction to man made culture
• Avoid utilities
• Affects on existing and future location of public facilities
• Should be located with some prominent features ahead
• Geometric design
• Must meet the requirements of design speed
• Change in grade and curvature should be minimum
• Avoid sudden changes
• Beginning or ending a horizontal curve within the limits
of a
vertical curve over a crest should be avoided, since the
driver cannot see the change before he reaches it
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7
8
Highway Location →
Principles
• Crossing and intersections
• Crossing of water channels where less width and soil presents
good bearing capacity
• Bridges not located adjacent to curves
• No intersection at grade with railway line near bends
• Alignment along line having least conflicting points
• Soil conditions
• Avoid boggy and marshy areas
• Soil should demand for least thickness of pavement

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Overview of the Location
Process
Highway Location
Highway Location → Overview of Location
Process The beginning and the end point is
selected and the region is defined. The
region is further studied in search of broad
bands which are 8-16km wide. From
these broad bands, the corridor is studied
then the route strips and possible
alignments are found out.

An example of rural motorway

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Location Surveys in Rural
Areas Location
Highway
Location Survey → Rural Areas
→  Se
tps
Steps of Location Process
• Previously location surveys were made using maps or physical
reconnaissance on foot or through air exploration that
required considerable efforts and time.
• Now location practices are primarily based on
photogrammetry and GIS. Better locations can be produced in
less time and at lower cost
• The steps are
• Map study (Provisional alignment Identification)
• Preliminary Reconnaissance
• Reconnaissance of feasible routes
• Preliminary location
• Final location

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Location Survey → Rural Areas
→  Se
tp I
• From the map alternative routes can be suggested in
the office, if the topographic map of that area is
available.
• The probable alignment can be located on the map
from the fallowing details available on the map.
Avoiding valleys, ponds or lake
Avoiding bend of river
If road has to cross a row of hills, possibility
of crossing through mountain pass.
• Map study gives a rough guidance of the routes to
be further surveyed in the field
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15
Location Survey → Rural Areas → Step
II
Preliminary
Reconnaissance
• Intensive reconnaissance studies by the most competent talent are
necessary and fundamental to proper highway location. There are so many
variables to be appraised that reconnaissance is to a degree an art, but it
is becoming a much more refined art because of photogrammetry. ln any
event, the first step is to assemble all available maps, particularly those of
the Geological Survey.
• At the reconnaissance stage, the engineer's task is, by cut and try, to
determine which routes deserve further study. Terminals of the road and
intermediate points through which it must pass form the primary controls.
A unique bridge site or single mountain pass also may become a primary
control if no alternative exists. Likewise, for scenic highways, the positions
of timbered areas, waterfalls, lakes, and other attractions may be primary
controls
• Drainage systems, mountain passes, low points in ridges, or swamps in
low country, often form secondary controls

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 Typical Survey Traverse Methodology

S001

S100

PSM
S101
S300

S102 S002
S400
S401

S405
Fly Station
S800
S402

S404
S103
NUMBER DESCRIPTION
S001-S099 Primary Control (Mandatory)
S100-S299 Secondary Control
S400-S799 Tertiary Control
S300-S399 Permanent Survey Marks registered with the Surveyor General
S800-S999 Radiations (Fly Stations)
BM01-BM99 Deep Bench Marks
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Location Survey → Rural Areas → Step
II
Preliminary Reconnaissance
• Information required
• Permitted use and restrictions
• Approaches and access including for construction purposes
• Ground conditions by following sources
• Geological maps
• Flooding erosion, landslides , subsidence history
• Data by local and central govt
• Construction and investigation record of adjacent records
• Seismicity
• Sources of material for construction
• Drainage and sewerage problems
• Water, electric and gas supply
• Telecommunication
• Metrological conditions

61
Location Survey → Rural Areas → Step
III
Reccee Survey of Feasible Routes
• The preliminary reconnaissance will have established primary and
secondary controls for one or more feasible routes for the proposed
highway. Also it probably will have fixed each location within a band
of limited width, possibly within a few hundred feet.
• The second stage is to set the position of the alternate routes quite
closely by establishing all control points and by fitting tentative
vertical and horizontal alignment to them
• Traditionally, these control points are established "on the ground,"
after which they are tied together by surveys of appropriate
accuracy. Where the photogrammetric approach is used, aerial
photographs and GIS can be used to study maximum alternatives
and most feasible one selected

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Location Survey → Rural Areas → Step
III
Reconnaissance Report
• Total length of line
• The elevation of main and intermediate summit
• All adverse grades
• Stream crossing
• Nature of construction
• Right of way circumstances
• Soil conditions
• Unusual or troublesome condition
• Approximate estimate of cost

20
Location Survey → Rural Areas → Step
IV
Preliminary Location
• After the preferred location has been established within a reasonably
narrow band, more detailed data are required with which to fix the final
location. If conventional practice is followed, a preliminary or P line is run
which follows as closely as possible to the apparent position of the final
center line. The alignment survey is commonly by transit and steel tape;
curves are not run in, but deflection angles larger than 30° are avoided.
Elevations taken with an engineer's level provide data for a profile and a
starting point for topographic mapping that covers a strip from 200 to 800 ft
wide, depending on conditions. Field data are reduced to maps and
profiles, often plotted to a scale of 100 ft to 1 in. On these drawings the
final location is laid out ready for field staking of the center line and the
taking of profile levels and cross-sections
• The preliminary survey based on photogrammetric methods is almost
entirely an office operation
• From these maps, the final location is made and construction plans are
drawn.
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 PRELIMINARY
SURVEY
• Base Plan Hz Vr
 Built up area/hilly terrain 1:1000 1:100
 Plain and rolling terrain 1:2500 1:250
• Establish center line
• Incorporation of natural and man made features
• Longitudinal and cross sectional profile
(Levelling).
 Plain Terrain` : 100 – 200m
 Rolling Terrain : 50m
 Hilly Terrain :
30m
• Other studies
 Drainage, Hydrological, soil, Traffic and Materials.

• Finalisation of the best alignment

 Comparative analysis.
 Choose best alignment among alternatives.
 Design geometric elements.
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Location Survey → Rural Areas → Step
V
Final Location
• Final location is essentially the fixing of the details of the projected
highway. It offers opportunity for small shifts of the line and adjustments
in grade
• At this time, final horizontal and vertical positioning of structures,
channels, and other drainage facilities is set. Particular attention should be
paid to coordinating horizontal and vertical alignments
• Directions of property lines, distances to property corners, and the
locations of buildings, fences, and other improvements must be
established accurately. On these will hinge the future property acquisitions
and settlements 'made by the' right-of-way agents
• Cross section level should be taken at right angles ,on both sides , at
center line
• All streams within the area of construction should be carefully located with
respect to pegged center line and their profile elevations be taken
upstream and down stream

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Location Survey → Rural Areas → Step
V
Final Location
• Detail information to be obtained on existing bridges and culverts
• Benchmarks are key reference points and new permanent ones should be
established outside construction area so that they can be preserved for the
entire period of road contract
• Location of major road structures e.g. interchanges, flyovers and bridges is
carried out during final location survey

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Location Survey → Rural Areas → Step
V
• Detailed survey:
• Temporary bench marks are fixed at intervals of
about 250m and at all drainage and under pass structure.
• Earthwork calculations and drainage details are to be workout
from the level books.
• Cross sectional levels are taken at intervals of 50-100m in
Plane terrain, 50-75m in Rolling terrain, 50m in built-up area,
20m in Hill terrain.
• Detail soil survey is to be carried out.
• CBR value of the soils along the alignment may be
determined for design of pavement.
• The data during detailed survey should be elaborate and
complete for preparing detailed plans, design and estimates of
project.
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26
Comparison of Conventional and Modern Methods of
Surveying
Elements of Conventional Modern

comparison
Maps- Base Topo sheets RS data, Aerial Photos,
material Satellite Imageries

Instruments Chains, Tapes, Theodolite, EDM, Total Station, GPS,

Dumpy levels Auto and Digital Level,
Photogrammetry.

Accuracy Chain/Tape 1 in 3000 to 1 in EDM/TS 1 in 10000 to 1 in

30,000 1,00,000
Tacheometer 1 in 1000 to 1 in Photogrammetry. 1 in 10000
10,000 to 1 in 1,00,000

Plotting CAD Systems Software

Errors Human errors Closing Errors hence re
measuring is required.

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Location Surveys in Urban
Areas
Highway Location
Location Survey → Urban Areas
→  Se
tps
Reconnaissance Preliminary Survey
• The reconnaissance-preliminary survey leading to the location
and preliminary design of major highway in an urban area has
been divided into the following inter related steps.
• Determine the approximate traffic load along a general
route suggested by traffic desire lines
• Assign traffic to one or more of the selected locations to
determine design traffic volumes
• Adjust line and complete sketch preliminary plans for major
alternate locations.
• Analyze and compare alternative locations for selection of
the preferred one, by making cost estimates, analyzing road
user benefits and considering other controls and factors

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Location Survey → Urban Areas
→  Se
tps
Final Location Survey
• The final location survey is similar to that described in a rural
area for a highway location survey
• It is comparatively more difficult
• The principal difference is in the scale of the aerial
photographs and drawings which is roughly double the scale
of their rural counter part, as greater detail is required

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Location Survey → Urban Areas
→  Se
tps
Additional Factors
• Locate new roads in close proximity of the existing
and planned parking places
• Existing transport system i.e. rail, docks and airports
need good servicing by the roads
• Underground public utilities i.e. sewers, water, gas
and electric lines pose problems in built up areas
• Land and social costs
• Topographical and underlying soil conditions are more critical
in urban location due to less options available
• Environmental aesthetics value

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Location Survey → Urban Areas
→  Se
tps
Problems in Urban Location
• Land owner conflict – land acquisition
problems
• Centre line may not be a straight line
• Planning issues- foresightedness
• Effect on environment
• Community aspirations

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Location Survey → Urban Areas → Flow
Chart

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Roads in Hilly
Areas
Highway Location
Location Survey →

Road in Hilly Areas

• In mountainous country with well defined summit ranges,
there is usually a suitable pass with possible approaches
• The least expensive and frequently the straightest line may lie
just above high water line in the stream
• On occasions, the routes must climb from a stream level to an
adjoining pass or summit. In this case the road must be long
enough to gain max elevation at gentle slope
• Excessive use of switchbacks is objectionable & should be
avoided
• Long stretches in one direction before reversal are preferred
• Avoid tunneling

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Location Survey →

Road in Hilly Areas

• Least cutting of woods
• Select location with balance cut and fill as far as possible
• In snow bound areas
• The location should, if possible be limited to slopes exposed
to sun to avoid icing on road
• Very important to locate areas where drifts form, snow
slides occur and snow melts late. It requires for separate
snow surveys in winters

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37
Location Survey
→
• Special considerations on Hilly Roads
• Slope Stability
– a common problem in hill roads is land slide. Special care should
be taken to choose the side that is more stable
• Drainage
– Numerous hill-side drains to adequately drain the water across the
road should be provided
– But, attempts should be made to align the road where the number
of cross-drainage structures are minimized
• Geometry
– Different standards of grades, curves, sight distances, speeds and
other related features are followed in hill roads
• Resisting Length
– The resisting length should be kept as low as possible. Thus, the
ineffective rise and excessive fall should be kept minimum

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Highway
Components
Highway Plans & Specifications
Highway Plan →

What is a Highway Plan?

• Plans are instructions under which highways are built
• Plans contain engg drawings of the project whereas
specifications present the written instructions
• After the final loc for the given project has been completed ,
all dimensional features and all other final plan details are
recorded on series of drawings referred as plans
• It may include earth work quantities, roadway cross section for
every situation, drawings of all structures and roadway
accessories
• Contents may vary according to the job, detail , accuracy
required, importance and significance of the project

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Highway Plan →

Contents of Highway Plan

• Geometric design and structural design
• Terrain condition--- thickness of pavement is not varied until a
change is warranted by terrain
• Traffic management details
• Drainage plan showing layout of drains
• Erosion control details
• Road side development details as planned keeping in view
environmental aspects
• Road structure i.e. culverts, bridges & retaining walls
• Series of minor drawings (info sheets) including earth work
involved i.e. mass diagram , curves and grade line details
which are repetitive and a reference is made to other
drawings
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Highway Plan →

Contents of Highway Plan

• Plans contain standard drawings and special provisions
• Standard drawings cover following subjects:-
• Pipe culverts
• Concrete box culverts
• Guard rails and parapets
• Curbs
• Gutters
• Side walks
• Drainage inlets and outlets
• Manholes
• Ripraps
• Fences
• Right of way & permanent survey markers

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Highway Plan →

Highway Specifications
• Definition
• Written instructions supplementing drawings which are classified
into
following groups:-
• Based upon nature of work
• Based upon type of contents
• Administrative details
• Contracting rules
• Measurement procedures
• Supervision
• Mode of payment
• Tech details
• e.g. is retaining wall to be constructed
• What is the asphalt grade to be used
• What is the grade of the aggregate
• References
• Instead of repeating specifications ,a standard tech
document is 64
44
Balance User Costs and Highway
Costs

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Cross Section
Elements
Highway Plans & Specifications
Hierarchical Structure of Road
Networks

Urban Rural

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48
Highway Components → Plan &
Profile

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Cross Section
•Elements
Carriageway. The proportion of the roadway provided for the
movement of vehicles, exclusive of shoulders
• Roadway. The portion of the highway including shoulder for
vehicle use
• Median. The physical of painted separation provided on
divided highways between two adjacent roadways
• Camber. Convexity provided to the surface of carriageway,
known as crown
• Bicycle and pedestrian facilities
• Utility areas
• Drainage channels and side slopes

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Two Lane Rural Highway Cross
Section
Cross Section Elements Roadway Components
• Roadway • Travel Lanes
• Median • Shoulders
• Roadside

Source:http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/flex/ch06.htm

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Highway Plan →

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Travel
Lane/carriageway
• Function: guidance to drivers and vehicle support
• Pavement types:
• Paved
• Flexible pavement
• Asphalt concrete,
• Surface treatment
• Rigid pavement
• Unpaved
• Selection Criteria:
• Traffic volume and composition
• Soil characteristics
• Availability of materials
• Environmental issues including energy conservation
• Cost analysis (Initial cost, maintenance cost and
operating cost)

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Travel Lane
width
Environment Width
• Ideal 3.6 m (12ft)
• Urban area with restriction 3.5 m (11ft)
• low speed/urban roadways 3.0 m (10ft)
• low volume rural and residential roadways 2.7 m (9 ft)
• shared outside lane with bike 4.2 m (14 ft)

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Roadway Component –
Shoulders
• Functions
• Lateral Support
• Avoidance Space
• Emergency Stop
• Turning/Passing at Intersections
• Pedestrian use in rural area
• Geometry
• 0.6 to 3.6 m width
• It could be either paved or Unpaved surface
• with slope 2 to 6% (paved), 4 to 6% (unpaved)

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Cross Section Element -
Median
• Functions:
• Separation from opposing traffic
• Drainage
• For future lanes, recovery,
access control
• Aesthetics
• Type
• Depressed (rural arterials, 6:1 preferred? 4:1 min)
• Raised (urban arterials)
• Flush (urban/sub. some rural) – can be painted with double
yellows to limit access.
• Median barrier
• Width – varies according to their function, the availability of
space and cost)

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Cross
Slope
• Slope to flow of traffic on tangent
perpendicular
• section
Rural – normal crown – uniform slope from center to
edge of pavement (cross slope break typically at
centerline)
• Urban – parabolic shape sometimes (gutter capacity)
• Rate of Cross Slope (1.5% to 6%, high value for low
volume roads)

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Other elements of
highways
• Roadside Barriers
• Separates vehicles from
hazardous conditions
• Curbs and Gutters
• Provides channelization and
drainage
• Guide Rails Roadside barrier
• Longitudinal barriers which
prevent vehicles from
leaving roadbed (Box, W-
beam and wire)

Median barrier

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References
• Text Book
• Highway Engineering by Clarkson H. Oglesby, 3rd edition,
Chapter 6
• Refrences
• Highways – The location, Design, Construction and Maintenance
of Pavements by C A O’ Flaherty
• Highway Engineering by Dr S.k. Khanna
• http://www.aboutcivil.com/location-survey-for-roads.html
• http://www.aboutcivil.com/highway-location-in-urban-areas.html
• http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/tcsp/case7.html
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportation_planning

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Thanks