Unit – IV

Algebraic Structures
 Algebraic systems
 Examples and General Properties
 Semi groups and monoids
 Groups
 Sub groups
 Homomorphism
 Isomorphism
Binary and n-ary operations
n-ary operation on nonempty set S
Function from S X S X S X … X S to S
(f : S X S X S X … X S  S).
Assigns a unique element of S to every ordered n-tuple of
elements of S.
n order of the operation.

Unary operation on nonempty set S

Assigns a unique element of S to every element of S.
n-ary operation of order 1.

Binary operation on nonempty set S (*)

Function from S X S to S (f : S X S  S).
Assigns a unique element of S to every ordered pair of elements (a,
b) of S.
n-ary operation of order 2.
a*b
S is closed under the binary operation *.
Examples

 Set of all integers (Z) is closed under addition(+),

subtraction(–) and multiplication (*) operations.

 Set of all real numbers (R) is closed under addition(+),

subtraction(–) and multiplication(*) operations.
Properties of Binary Operations

Let * and  be binary operations on nonempty set S.

Commutative
If a * b = b * a, for every a, b  S.

Associative
If a * (b * c) = (a * b) * c, for every a, b, c  S.

Idempotent
If a * a = a, for all a  S.

Distributive
a * (b  c) = (a * b)  (a * c)
(a  b) * c) = (a * c)  (b * c), for all a, b, c  S.
Examples

Addition and multiplication operations are commutative and

associative on Z.
a + b = b + a, a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
a x b = b x a, a x (b x c) = (a x b) x c

Subtraction operation is neither commutative nor associative

on Z.
a – b  b – a, a – (b – c)  (a – b) – c

Multiplication operation is distributive over the addition

operation on Z.
a x (b + c) = (a x b) + (a x c)
(a + b) x c = (a x c) + (b x c)

Addition operation is not distributive over the multiplication

operation on Z.
a + (b x c)  (a + b) x (a + c)
(a x b) + c  (a + c) x (b + c)
 Let the binary operation * is defined on the set
S = {a, b, c, d} as given in the operation table.

* a b c d
a a c b d
b d a b c
c c d a b
d d b a c
Element a * b is displayed in the (i, j) position.
b*c=b
c*b=d
Operation * is not commutative.

b * (c * d) = b * b = a
(b * c) * d = b * d = c
Operation * is not associative.
Algebraic Systems – Examples and general properties

Algebraic system / Algebra / Algebraic Structure

Some n-ary operations on nonempty set S.
<S, *1, *2, …, *k>
Examples:
<Z, +, x>
<P(S), , >

Identity (e)
Let * be a binary operation on nonempty set S.
el * x = x * er = x for every x in S.

Left Identity (e1)

el * x = x for every x in S.

Right Identity (er)

x * er = x for every x in S.
Inverse (x)
Let * be a binary operation on nonempty set S.
xl * a = a * xr = e.
a is invertible.

Left Inverse (x1)

Let * be a binary operation on nonempty set S.
xl * a = e.
a is left-invertible.

Right Inverse (xr)

Let * be a binary operation on nonempty set S.
a * xr = e.
a is right-invertible.
Standard Algebraic Structures
Ring
Let <R, +, .> be an algebraic structure for a nonempty set R and
two binary operations + and . defined on it.
1) The operation + is commutative and associative.
a + b = b + a, for all a, b  R.
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c, for all a, b, c  R.

2) There exists the identity element 0 in R w.r.t. +.

a + 0 = 0 + a = a, for every a  R.

3) Every element in R is invertible w.r.t. +.

With every a  R there exists in R its inverse element,
denoted by (–a).
a + (–a) = (–a) + a = 0.
4) The operation . is associative.
a . ( b. c) = (a . b) . c for all a, b, c  R.

5) The operation . is distributive over the operation + in

R.
a . (b + c) = (a . b) + (a . c)
(a + b) . c = (a . c) + (b . c) for all a, b, c  R.
Zero element of the ring
Identity element w.r.t. + the operation + (0).

Negative of a
Inverse (–a) w.r.t. + of a  R.

Examples
1. <Z, +, x>, Z is a set of integers and binary operations + and x.

2. <Q, +, x>, Q is a set of rational nos. and binary operations + and x.

3. <R, +, x>, R is a set of real nos. and binary operations + and x.

4. <C, +, x>, C is a set of complex nos. and binary operations + and x.

Commutative Ring
If the operations +, . are commutative in a ring <R, +, .>.

Examples
1. <Z, +, x>, Z is a set of integers and binary operations + and x.

2. <Q, +, x>, Q is a set of rational nos. and binary operations +

and x.

3. <R, +, x>, R is a set of real nos. and binary operations + and x.

4. <C, +, x>, C is a set of complex nos. and binary operations +

and x.
Ring with Unity
If the operations +, . have identity elements in a ring <R, +, .>.

Examples

1. <Z, +, x>, Z is a set of integers and binary operations + and x.

2. <Q, +, x>, Q is a set of rational nos. and binary operations + and x.

3. <R, +, x>, R is a set of real nos. and binary operations + and x.

4. <C, +, x>, C is a set of complex nos. and binary operations + and x.

Integral Domain
a . b = 0  a = 0 or b = 0 for a commutative ring with unity <R, +, .>.

Examples

1. <Z, +, x>, Z is a set of integers and binary operations + and x.

2. <Q, +, x>, Q is a set of rational nos. and binary operations + and x.

3. <R, +, x>, R is a set of real nos. and binary operations + and x.

4. <C, +, x>, C is a set of complex nos. and binary operations + and x.

Field
If a ring <R, +, .>
is commutative
has the unity
every nonzero element of R has the inverse under the . operation.

Commutative ring with unity in which every nonzero element has a

multiplicative inverse.
Examples
1. <Q, +, x>, Q is a set of rational nos. and binary operations + and x.

2. <R, +, x>, R is a set of real nos. and binary operations + and x.

3. <C, +, x>, C is a set of complex nos. and binary operations + and x.

4. <Z, +, x>, Z is a set of integers and binary operations + and x is not a

field as Z does not contain multiplicative inverses of all its nonzero
elements.
Exercises
1) Let S = {0, 1} and the operations + and . on s be defined by the
following tables:

+ 0 1 . 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 0 1
Show that <S, +, .> is a commutative ring with unity.
2) Let S = {a, b, c, d} and the operations + and . on s be defined
by the following tables:

+ a b c d . a b c d
a a b c d a a a a a
b b a d c b a a b a
c c d b a c a b c d
d d c a b d a a d a

Show that <S, +, .> is a ring.

Semigroups and Monoids
Semigroups
An algebraic system <S, *> consisting of a nonempty set S and an
associative binary operation * defined on S.

Examples
1. <Z, +>, Z is a set of integers and binary operation +.

2. <Z, x>, Z is a set of integers and binary operation x.

3. <Z+, +>, Z+ is a set of positive integers and binary operation +.

4. <Z, –>, Z is a set of integers and binary operation – is not a

semigroup.
Commutative / Abelian Semigroups
An algebraic system <S, *> consisting of a nonempty set S and an
associative and a commutative binary operations * defined on S.

Examples

1. <Z, +>, Z is a set of integers and binary operation +.

2. <Z, x>, Z is a set of integers and binary operation x.

3. <Z+, +>, Z+ is a set of positive integers and binary operation +.

Monoid
A semigroup with the identity element e w.r.t. *.

Examples
1. <Z, +> with the identity element 0.

2. <Z, x> with the identity element 1.

3. <P(S), > with the identity element .

4. <P(S), > with the identity element S.

Exercises
Consider the binary operation * on a set A = {a, b} is defined
through a multiplication table. Determine whether <A, *> is a
semigroup or a monoid or neither.

* a b * a b
a b a a a a
b a b b b b

* a b
a a b
b a a
Consider the binary operation * on a set A = {a, b} is defined
through a multiplication table. Determine whether <A, *> is a
semigroup or a monoid or neither.

* a b * a b
a a b a a b
b b b b b a

* a b
a b b
b a a
In each of the following, indicate whether the given set forms a
semigroup or a monoid under the given operation.

1. The set of all positive integers, with a * b = maximum of a and

b.
2. The set of all even integers on which the operation * is defined
by a * b = ab / 2.
3. The set A = {1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18} on which the operation * is
defined by a * b = LCM of a and b.
4. The set Q of all rational nos. on which the operation * is
defined by a * b = a – b + ab.
5. The product set Q x q, where Q is the set of all rational nos. on
which the operation * is defined by (a, b) * (c, d) = (ac, ad + b).
Groups and Subgroups
Group (G)
Let a nonempty set G be closed under *.
Algebraic system <G, *> with the following conditions:
1. (a * b) * c = a * (b * c) for all a, b, c  G (Associative).

2. There is an element e  G such that a * e = e * a = a, for all a  G (G

contains identity element e under *).

3. For every a  G, there is an element a’  G such that a * a’ = a’ * a = e

(Every element a of G is invertible under * with a’ as an inverse).
Every group is a monoid and therefore a semigroup.

a2 = a * a
ab = a * b

Abelian / Commutative Group

If ab = ba for all a, b  G.

Infinite Group
A group G on a infinite set G.

Examples
1. <Z, +>
Associative.
Identity element 0.
Inverse is –a.
Infinite group.
Abelian group (a + b = b + a. for all a, b  Z).
2. Set of all non-zero rational or real or complex nos.
under multiplication.
Identity element 1.
Inverse is 1/a.
Infinite abelian group.
3. Set of all n x n non-singular matrices under matrix
multiplication.
Identity element is unit matrix of order n.
Infinite group.
Not abelian
(matrix multiplication is not commutative).
Subgroups

Let <G, *> be a group and H be a nonempty subset of

G. Then <H, *> is a subgroup of G if <H, *> itself is a
group.

Examples

1. The set of all even integers forms a subgroup of

the group of all integers under usual addition.

2. The set of all nonzero rational nos. forms a

subgroup of the group of all nonzero real nos. under
usual multiplication.
Group Homomorphism and Isomorphism
Let G1 and G2 be two groups and f be a function from
G1 to G2. The f is called a homomorphism from G1
to G2 if f(ab) = f(a)f(b), for all a, b  G1.
The function f : G1  G2 is called an isomorphism
from G1 onto G2 if
a. f is a homomorphism from G1 to G2.
b. f is one-to-one and onto.

The groups G1 and G2 are said to be isomorphic if

there is an isomorphism from G1 onto G2.
Example
Consider the groups <R, +> and <R+, x>.
Define the function f : R  R+ by f(x) = ex for all x  R.
Then, for all a, b  R,
We have f(a + b) = ea+b = eaeb = f(a)f(b).
Hence f is homomorphism.
Take any c  R+.
Then log c  R and f(log c) = elog c = c.
Every element in R+ has a preimage in R under f.
f is onto.
For any a, b  R,
f(a) = f(b)
 ea = eb
 a = b.
f is one-to-one.
f is an isomorphism.
Cosets and Lagrange's theorem
Let <G,*> be a group and <H,*> be a subgroup. For any a  G,
let a*H = { a*h/ h  H}
and H*a = {h*a / h  H}.
Then, a*H is called the left coset of H w.r.t a in G and H*a is called the right
coset of H w.r.t a in G
1. the left and right cosets of H are subsets of G

2. with each a  G, there exists a left coset a*H of H and a right coset
H*a of H . Further a = a*e  a*H and a = e*a  H*a.

3. the left and right cosets of H are not one and the same, in general.

4. If G is abelian, then every left coset of H is a right coset also.

5. e*H =H*e = H whenever or not G is abelian
Cosets and Lagrange's theorem

 If the operation * is the addition +, we write a * H as a + H and H * a as

H + a.
 For example, consider the additive group of integers <Z,+> and its
subgroup of even integers<E,+>. Then for any a  Z,
 The left coset of E w.r.t .a is a + E ={a + h / h E}
= { a +- 2n/ n z+}
= { a, a+-2,a+-4,a+-6,…….}
 And the right coset of E w.r.t. a is
E + a = {h + a /h E}
= {+-2n+ a/ n  z+}
= { a, a+-2,a+-4,a+-6,…….}
Cosets and Lagrange's theorem

If G is a finite group and H is a subgroup of G, then the order of H

divides the order of G