UNIT-3

• Relations and ordering

• Lattices
• Boolean alzebra
 Relations and ordering
• Relations
• Properties of binary relations in a set
• Relation matrix
• Graph of a relation
• Partition
• Covering
• Equivalence relations
• Compatibility relations
• Composition of binary relations
• Partial ordering
• POSets
Sets and Subsets
Set
A set is a collection of well-defined objects (elements/members).
The elements of the set are said to belong to (or be contained in) the
set.
A set may be itself be an element of some other set.
A set can be a set of sets of sets and so on.
Sets will be denoted be capital letters A, B, C, ...
Elements will be denoted by lower case letters a, b, c, .... x, y, z.
The phrase “is an element of” will be denoted by the symbol .
xA denotes x is an element of the set A.
xA denotes x is not an element of the set.
There are five ways to describe a set.
1. Describe a set by describing the properties of the
members of the set.
2. Describe a set by listing its elements.
3. Describe a set by its characteristic functions defined as
 A (x) = 1, if xA
= 0, if xA.
4. Describe a set by a recursive formula.
5. Describe a set by an operation (such as union,
intersection, complement etc.,) on some other sets.
Example: Describe the set containing all the non
negative integers less than or equal to 5.
Let A denote the set.
1. A = {x | x is a non-negative integer  5}
2. A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
3. A (x) = 1 for x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
= 0 for x>5 and x<0 (otherwise)
4. A = {xi+1 = xi +1, i = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 where x0 = 0}
5. Let B = {0, 2, 4} and C = {1, 3, 5}. A = BC.
Subset: Set A is said to be a subset of set B if every element of set A is an
element of B. It is denoted as AB. (A is contained in B)
Ex:
1. If A = {0, 2, 4} and B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, then AB.
2. If A = {0, 1, 2} and B = {0, 1, 2} then AB.

Proper subset: A is said to be a proper subset of B if A is a subset of B and

there is at least one element of B which is not in A. It is denoted as AB (A
is strictly contained in B).
Ex: If A = {0, 2, 4} and B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, then AB.

Properties:
Let A, B, C be the sets.
1. AA.
2. If AB and BC, then AC.
3. If AB and BC, then AC.
4. If AB and AC, then BC (B is not contained in C).
 AB and BA if and only if (iff) A and B have the same elements.
Two sets A and B are equal iff AB and BA. It is denoted as A = B.
To show that two sets A and B are equal, we must show that each
element of A is also an element of B, and conversely.

Empty/Null Set: A set containing no elements is called the

empty/null set and is denoted as .
Example:  = { }
The empty set is a subset of every set. i.e.,  A for every A.
Singleton: A set containing a single element is called a Singleton.

Operations on Sets.
There are three operations on sets namely Complement, Union and
Intersection.

Complement:
Absolute complement: Let U be the universal set and let A be any subset of U.
The absolute complement of A, denoted as ’, is defined as {x | x  A} or {x | x
 U and x  A}.

Ex:
If U = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and A = {0, 2, 4} then A` = {1, 3, 5}.
 Relative complement: If A and B are sets, the relative
complement of A with respect to B isB – A = {x | x  B and x  A}.

Ex:
If A = {0, 2, 4} and B = {0, 1, 2, 3} then B – A = {1, 3}.
It is clear that `= U and U` = .

The complement of complement of A is equal to A i.e. (A)`` = A.

Ex: If U = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and A = {0, 2, 4,}

then A` = {1, 3, 5} and A`` = {0, 2, 4} = A.

 Union:
The union, denoted as , two sets A and B is
A  B = {x | x  A or x  B or x  both A and B}.

Ex: If A = {0, 3, 6, 9} and B = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8}

then AB = {0, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9}.

Intersection: The intersection, denoted as , of two sets A and

B is
A  B = {x | x  A and x  B}.

Ex: If A = {0, 3, 6, 9} and B = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8}

then AB = {0, 6}
Basic properties of Union and Intersection:

Union Intersection
Idempotent: AA = A AA = A
Commutative: AB = BA AB = BA
Associative: A(BC) = (AB)C (AB)C = A(BC)

Prove or Disprove (AB) C  A(BC).

Ex: If A = {0, 1, 2}, B = {1, 3, 4} and C = {2, 4, 6}

AB = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}

L.H.S = (AB)C = {2, 4}

R.H.S = A(BC) = {0, 1, 2, 4}

(AB)C  A(BC)
 Difference: The set difference, denoted as -, of two sets A and B is
A – B = {x| x A and x  B}.

Ex: Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3} and B = {3, 4, 5},

then A – B = {0, 1, 2}.

Symmetrical difference (Boolean sum): The symmetrical difference,

denoted as , of two sets A and B is AB = {x|xA or xB, but not both}.

Ex: If A = {0, 1, 2, 3} and B = {3, 4, 5}

then AB = {0, 1, 2, 4, 5}.

Disjoint sets: Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint if they do not
have a member in common.
i.e. if AB =  and A and B are disjoint sets.
 Power set: The Power set, denoted as p, of the given set A is the family of
sets such that xA, iff xp(A) i.e., p(A) = {x | xA}.

Ex: Let A = {a, b, c}

p(A) = {{ }, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}}

Cartesian product: The Cartesian product, denoted as X, of the sets A

and B is the set of all ordered pairs (x, y) where xA and yB
i.e., A X B = {(x, y)|xA and yB}.

Ex: Let A = {0, 1} and B = {a, b}

A X B = {(0, a), (0, b), (1, a), (1, b)}
and B X A = {(a, 0), (a, 1), (b, 0), (b, 1)}.

An ordered pair in a set is specified by two elements in a prescribed order

i.e., (a, b)  (b, a).
Distributive and DeMorgan’s Laws

Distributive Laws

Let A, B and C be three sets.

A(BC) = (AB)(AC) and

A(BC) = (AB) (AC)

Ex: A = {0, 1, 2}, B = {1, 2, 5} and C = {0, 5, 8}

BC = {0, 1, 2, 5, 8}
AB = {1, 2}
AC = {0}

L.H.S = A(BC)
= {0, 1, 2}

R.H.S =(AB)(AC)
= {0, 1, 2}

 A(BC) = (AB)(AC)
A = {0, 1, 2}, B = {1, 2, 5} and C = {0, 5, 8}

BC = {5}
AB = {0, 1, 2, 5}
AC = {0, 1, 2, 5, 8}

L.H.S = A(BC)
= {0, 1, 2, 5}

R.H.S = (AB)(AC)
= {0, 1, 2, 5}

ABC) = (AB)(AC)
DeMorgan’s Laws:

Let A and B be two sets.

(AB)` = A`B` and (AB)` = A`B `

Ex: Let U = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, A = {0, 1, 2} and B = {1, 2,

5}.

AB = {0, 1, 2, 5}
A` = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
B` = {0, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8}

L.H.S = (AB)` = {3, 4, 6, 7, 8}

R.H.S = A`B` = {3, 4, 6, 7, 8}

 (AB)` = A`B`
Ex: Let U = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, A = {0, 1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 5}.

AB = {1, 2}

A` = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
B` = {0, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8}

L.H.S = (AB)` = {0, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}

R.H.S = A`B` = {0, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}

(AB)` = A`B`
Venn diagrams: Venn diagrams are used to visualize various
properties of the set operations.

The Universal Set is represented by a large rectangular area.

Subsets are represented by circular areas

A
Venn diagrams of set operations

B
Properties of Binary Relations
Relations

Let A and B be nonempty sets.

a relation R  A X B and (a, b)  R.
a is related to b by R.
a R b.

Examples:
Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {r, s}.
R = {(1, r), (2, s), (3, r)} is a relation from A to B.

Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.

Define the relation R (less than) on A: a R b if and only if a < b.
R = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (3, 4), (3, 5), (4, 5)}.
Domain of R

Dom(R)
Let R  X X Y be a relation from X to Y.
Set of elements in X those are related to some element in Y.
Subset of X.
Set of all first elements in the pairs that make up R.

Range of R

Ran(R)
Set of elements in Y that are related to some element in X.
Subset of Y.
Set of all second elements in the pairs that make up R.

Example:
R = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (3, 4), (3, 5), (4, 5)}

Dom(R) = {1, 2, 3, 4}
Ran(R) = {2, 3, 4, 5}
The Digraph of a relation
Geometrical representations of relations.
Example:
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
and R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 4), (4, 1)}.
The Digraph of R is

1 3

4
1.Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Construct pictorial descriptions of the relation R
on A for the following:

a. R = {(j, k) | j divides k}
b. R = {(j, k) | j is a multiple of k}
c. R = {(j, k) | (j – k)2  A}
d. R = {(j, k) | j/k is a prime}

2. Let R be the relation from A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} to B = {1, 3, 5} which is

defined by “x is less than y”. Write as a set of ordered pairs.

3. Find the domain and range of the relation R.

A = {a, b, c, d}, B = {1, 2, 3},
R = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (b, 1), (c, 2), (d, 1)}.
4. Find the domain, range and digraph of the relation R.
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 8} = B; a R b if and only if a + b  9.
5. Find the relation determined by the digraph.

1 3

5 4

6. Find the relation determined by the digraph.

1

4 2

5
Properties of Relations

1.Reflexive

A relation R on a set A is reflexive if (a, a)  R for all a  A.

a R a for all a  A.
Every element a  A is related to itself.
Matrix must have all 1’s on its main diagonal.
Dom(R) = Ran(R) = A.

Example:
Let A = {1, 2, 3}
and R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2), (2,3), (3, 3)}.
2.Irreflexive

A relation R on a set A is irreflexive if a R a for every a  A.

No element is related to itself.
Matrix must have all 0’s on its main diagonal.

Example:
Let A = {1, 2, 3}
and R = {(1, 2), (2, 1), (3, 1), (3, 2)}.

Example:
Let A = {1, 2, 3}
and R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (3, 1), (3, 2)}
Neither reflexive nor irreflexive.
3.Symmetric
A relation R on a set A is symmetric if whenever a R b, then b R a.

Example:
Let A = {1, 2, 3}
and R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 2)}.

4.Asymmetric
A relation R on a set A is asymmetric if whenever a R b, then b R a.

Example:
Let A = {1, 2, 3}
and R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2), (3, 2)}.
 5. Antisymmetric
A relation R on a set A is antisymmetric if whenever a R b and b
R a, then a = b.

Example:
Let A = {1, 2, 3}
and R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}.

6. Transitive
A relation R on a set A is transitive if whenever a R b and b R c,
then a R c.

Example:
Let A = {1, 2, 3}
and R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1),
(3, 2), (3, 3)}.
Exercises:

Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Determine whether the relation is reflexive,

irreflexive, symmetric, asymmetric, antisymmetric, or transitive.

1. R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 3), (4, 4)}
2. R = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 4)}
3. R = {(1, 3), (1, 1), (3, 1), (1, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}
4. R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}
5. R = A x A
6. R = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (3, 1), (1, 1), (3, 3), (3, 2), (1, 4), (4, 2), (3, 4)}
7. R = {(1, 3), (4, 2), (2, 4), (3, 1), (2, 2)}
Equivalence Relations
A relation R in a set A is called an equivalence relation if it is
reflexive , symmetric , and transitive.

If R is an equivalence relation in a set X, then D(R), the domain of R is

X itself.

Example:
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and
R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 3), (4, 4)}.
• Equality of numbers on a set of real numbers.
• Equality of subsets of a universal set.
• Similarity of triangles on the set of triangles.
• Relation of statements being equivalent in the set of
statements.

Ex 1): Let X = {1,2,3,4} and

R = {(1,1),(1,4),(4,1),(4,4),(2,2),2,3),(3,2),(3,3)}
Write the matrix of R and sketch its graph.
Ex 2): Let X = {1,2,……..,7} and
R = {(x , y) I x - y is divisible by 3}
Show that R is an equivalence relation .Draw the
graph of R.
Exercises:
Determine whether the relation R on the set A is an
equivalence relation.

1) A = {a, b, c, d},
R = {(a, a), (b, a), (b, b), (c, c), (d, d), (d, c)}

2) A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5},
R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 1), (2, 3), (3,
3), (4, 4), (3, 2), (5, 5)}

3) A = {1, 2, 3, 4},
R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 1), (3, 3), (1, 3), (4, 1),
(4, 4)}
Compatibility Relations

A relation R in a set X is said to be a compatibility

relation if it is Reflexive and Symmetric .

 All equivalence relations.

 Compatibility relations which are not equivalence

relations.

Ex: A = {1, 2, 3},

R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 2), (3, 3)}
Ex:
Let X={ball, bed, dog, let, egg}
R={(x , y) I x ,y  X  x R y if x and y contain some
common letter}
Operations on Relations

Complement of R (R’) / Complementary relation

a R’ b if and only if a R b. (R does not relate)

Inverse relation (R-1)

Relation from B to A (reverse order from R).
b R-1 a if and only if a R b.
(R-1 )-1 = R
Dom(R-1) = Ran(R)
Ran(R-1) = Dom(R)
 Example:
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4},
B = {a, b, c}
R = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, b), (2, c), (3, b), (4, a)}
and S = {(1, b), (2, c), (3, b), (4, b)}.

Compute R’, R  S, R  S and R-1.

A x B = {(1, a), (1, b), (1, c), (2, a), (2, b), (2, c),
(3, a), (3, b), (3, c), (4, a), (4, b), (4, c)}
R’ = {(1, c), (2, a), (3, a), (3, c), (4, b), (4, c)}

R  S = {(1, b), (2, c), (3, b)}

R  S = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, b), (2, c), (3, b), (4, a), (4, b)}

R-1 = {(a, 1), (b, 1), (b, 2), (c, 2), (b, 3), (a, 4)}
Composition of R and S (R  S)

Let A, B, C are sets,

R is a relation from A to B
and S is a relation from B to C.

R  S is a Relation from A to C.

If a is in A and c is in C, then a (R  S) c ((a,c)  (R  S))

if and only if for some b in B, we have a R b and b S c.
The relation R  S is R following S.

Example:
Let A ={1, 2, 3, 4},
R = {(1, 2), (1, 1), (1, 3), (2, 4), (3, 2)}, and
S = {(1, 4), (1, 3), (2, 3), (3, 1), (4, 1)}.
R  S = {(1, 4), (1, 3), (1, 1), (2, 1), (3, 3)}.

Let A, B, and C be sets, R is a relation from A to B, and S is a relation

relation from B to C
Then (S  R)-1 = R-1  S-1
Ex 1): Let R = {(1,2), (3,4),(2,2)} and
S = {(4,2),(2,5),(3,1),(1,3)}
Find R  S , S  R, R  (S  R), (R  S)  R, R  R,
S  S, and R  R  R
Ex 2): For the relations R and S given in Ex (1) over the set
{1,2,…….,5}, obtain the relation matrices for R  S
and S  R
 B C
A
R S

a b c

R0S

Composition Of Relations

Note: If R is a relation on set A then we can define the following

R  R as R2
(R  R )  R as R3
So in general , Rn is a relation on A defined recursively by
i) R1=R
ii) Rn=R  Rn-1
 Distinct relations R1, R2,R3,R4 in a set
X = {a, b, c} given by

R1 = {(a ,b) ,(a ,c) ,(c ,b)}

R2 = {(a ,b) ,(b ,c) ,(c ,a)}
R3 = {(a ,b) ,(b ,c) ,(c ,c)}
R4 = {(a ,b) ,(b, a) ,(c ,c)}

Denoting the composition of a relation by itself as

R  R = R2 R  R  R = R  R2 = R3 …….. R  Rm-1 = Rm …………
Example: Let A={ 1,2,3,4} B={w, x, y, z} C={5,6,7} and
R1 be a relation from A to B defined by
R1={(1,x),(2,x),(3,y)(3,z)}

R2 and R3 be the relations from B to C defined by

R3={(w,5)(x,6)}
R4={(w,5),(w,6)}
Then find R1  R2 , R1  R3

M(R1),M(R2),M(R1  R2) and verify that M(R1  R2) = M(R1).M(R2)

Partial Ordering Relation / Partial Order:
A relation R on set A is said to be a partial ordering
relation or a partial order on A if
i) R is Reflexive, ii) R is Antisymmetric and iii) R is
Transitive on A.

Partially Ordered Set (POSet)

Set A with the Partial Order R.
Denoted as (A, R).
Frequently used Partial Order Relations
1) Less than or equal to / Greater than or equal to
Let Z be the Set of integers.
Relation  is a partial order on Z.
POSet is (Z, ≤).
Relation ≥ is a partial order on Z.
POSet is (Z, ≥).

2) Inclusion
Let A be a collection of subsets of a set S.
The relation  of set inclusion is a partial order on A.
 (A, ) is a POSet.
3) Divides and Integral Multiple
If a and b are positive integers, then we say “a divides
b”, written a I b, iff there is an integer c such that ac = b.

4) Lexicographic Ordering
simple or total ordering
Hasse / POSet diagrams
1. Draw the Hasse diagram of the digraph:
Since a partial order is reflexive, delete all such cycles
from the digraph.
• Also eliminate all edges that are implied by the transitive
property and omit the edge from a to c.
• Draw the digraph of a partial order with all edges pointing
upward, so that arrows may be omitted from the edges.
• Finally, replace the circles representing the vertices by
dots.

• The resulting diagram of a partial order is the Hasse

diagram.
Draw the Hasse diagram of the relation
R = {(1, 1), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 3), (3, 4),
(4, 4)} on A = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 12}.
a. Define the relation R by aRb iff a | b.
b. Prove that R is a partial order on A.
c. Draw the Hasse diagram.
a. R = {(a, b) | (a, b)  A and a | b}
= {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 12), (2, 2), (2, 4),
(2, 12), (3, 3), (3, 12), (4, 4), (4, 12), (12, 12)}
b. R is Reflexive since (a, a)  R for all a  A.
R is Transitive since if (a, b)  R and (b, c)  R, then (a, c)  R.
R is antisymmetric since if a | b and b | a, then a = b, for all a, b  A.
 R is a partial order on A.
c. Hasse Diagram
Upper bound of a subset B of A
Element a  A, if x R a for all x  B.

Lower bound of a subset B of A

Element a  A, if a R x for all x  B.

Least Upper Bound (LUB) / Supremum (Sup) of a subset B of A

Element a  A, if
A is an upper bound of B.
A’ is an upper bound of B, then a R a’.

Greatest Lower Bound (GLB) / Infimum (Inf) of a subset B of A

Element a  A, if
A is a lower bound of B.
A’ is a lower bound of B, then a’ R a.
Given A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} and B = {3, 4, 5}, Find, if they exist,
all upper bounds of B; all lower bounds of B; the least upper bound
of B; and the greatest lower bound of B for the poset given in Figure
below.

Upper bounds 6, 7, 8
Lower bounds 1, 2, 3
Least Upper Bound No
Greatest Lower Bound 3
Find, if they exist, all upper bounds of B; all lower
bounds of B; the least upper bound of B; and the
greatest lower bound of B for the poset given below
for B = {c, d, e}.

Upper bounds are f, g, h.

Lower bounds are a, b, c.
LUB (B) = f
GLB (B) = c
 Lattice and its properties

Lattice
POSet (A, R)
Every two-element subset {a, b} of A has a Least
Upper Bound (LUB) and Greatest Lower Bound (GLB)
in A.
LUB {a, b} ab a join b
GLB {a, b} ab a meet b
Examples
(Z+, |).
(Dn, |), Dn be the Set of all positive divisors of n.
D20 = {1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 20}
(P(S), ).
Sublattice:
Let (L, R) be a lattice and M be a subset of L. Then M is
called a sub lattice of L if a  b  M and a  b  M
whenever a  M and b  M.

Product of Lattices:
Consider the lattices (L1, R) and (L2, R). Then these are
posets. Also, (L1 X L2, R) is a poset under the product
partial order defined by
(a, b) R (a`, b`) if a R a` in L1 and b R b` in L2.

L1 X L2 is called the product of L1 and L2.

Special types of Lattices

Bounded Lattice:
The least and greatest elements of a lattice are called the
bounds of the lattice and are denoted by 0 and 1.

A lattice which has both elements 0 and 1 is called a

bounded lattice.

Complete Lattice:
A lattice is called complete if each of its nonempty subsets
has a least upper bound and a greatest lower bound.
Every finite lattice must be complete.
Every complete lattice must have a least element and
a greatest element.
Complement:
In a bounded lattice an element b  L is called a
complement of an element a  L if
a  b = 0 and a  b = 1

Complemented Lattice:
A lattice is said to be a complemented lattice if every
element of L has at least one complement.

Distributive Lattice:
A lattice is called a distributive lattice for any a,b,c  L

a  (b  c) = (a  b)  (a  c)
a  (b  c) = (a  b)  (a  c)
Properties of Lattices

Let (L, R) be a Lattice.

For every a, b, c  L,

Idempotent Properties
 aa=a
 aa=a
Commutative Properties
 ab=ba
 ab=ba
Associative Properties
 a  (b  c) = (a  b)  c
 a  (b  c) = (a  b)  c
Absorption Properties
 a  (a  b) = a
 a  (a  b) = a
 a  b = b if and only if a R b.
 a  b = a if and only if a R b.
 a  b = a if and only if a  b = b.