Systems Analysis and

Design 10th Edition

Chapter 5
Data and Process Modeling
Chapter Objectives
 Describe data and process modeling
concepts and tools, including data flow
diagrams, a data dictionary, and process
descriptions
 Describe the symbols used in data flow

diagrams and explain the rules for their use

 Draw data flow diagrams in a sequence,

from general to specific

2
Chapter Objectives (Cont.)

 Explain how to level and balance a set of data

flow diagrams
 Describe how a data dictionary is used and

what it contains
 Use process description tools, including

structured English, decision tables, and

decision trees
 Describe the relationship between logical and

physical models

3
 Overview of Data and Process
Modeling Tools
 Systems analysts use many graphical techniques
to describe an information system
 A data flow diagram (DFD) uses various symbols

to show how the system transforms input data

into useful information

4
 Data Flow Diagrams
 A data flow diagram (DFD) shows how data
moves through an information system but does
not show program logic or processing steps
 A set of DFDs provides a logical model that

shows what the system does, not how it does it

5
 Data Flow Diagrams (Cont.)

 DFD Symbols
◦ Four basic symbols
◦ Gane & Sarson
used in text
◦ Yourdon also popular

FIGURE 5-3 Data flow diagram symbols, symbol names, and

examples of the Gane and Sarson and Yourdon symbol sets

6
Data Flow Diagrams (Cont.)

Process Symbol

• Must have at least one

input and at least one
output
• Contains business logic
that transforms the data
• Process name identifies its
function (verb)
• Process number does not
signify precedence
• Examples: “print bill” or
“add customer”

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 Data Flow Diagrams (Cont.)

 Data flow symbol

◦ Represents one or more
data items
◦ The symbol for a data
flow is a line with a
single or double
arrowhead

FIGURE 5-5 Examples of correct combinations of data flow and process symbols

8
 Data Flow Diagrams (Cont.)

 Data flow symbol

◦ Spontaneous generation
(Process must act on input)
◦ Black holes
◦ Gray holes

FIGURE 5-6 Examples of incorrect combinations of data flow and process

symbols. APPLY INSURANCE PREMIUM has no input and is called a
spontaneous generation process. CALCULATE GROSS PAY has no outputs and
is called a black hole process. CALCULATE GRADE has an input that is
obviously unable to produce the output. This process is called a gray hole
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Data Flow Diagrams (Cont.)

Data Store symbol

• Represent data that the system
stores
• A DFD does not show the detailed
contents of a data store — the specific
structure and data elements are defined
in the data dictionary
• A data store must be connected to a
process with a data flow

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 Data Flow Diagrams (Cont.)

FIGURE 5-8 Examples of incorrect

uses of data store symbols: Two data
stores cannot be connected by a data
flow without an intervening process,
and each data store should have an
outgoing and incoming data flow

FIGURE 5-7 Examples of correct

uses of data store symbols in a data
flow diagram

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Data Flow Diagrams (Cont.)

• Shows how the system interfaces

with the outside world
• A DFD shows only external entities
that provide data to the system or
receive output from the system
• DFD entities also are called
terminators because they are data
origins or final destinations
• Each entity must be connected to a
process by a data flow

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 Data Flow Diagrams (Cont.)

FIGURE 5-10 Examples of incorrect

uses of external entities. An external
entity must be connected by a data
flow to a process, and not directly to a
data store or to another external entity

FIGURE 5-9 Examples of correct uses of

external entities in a data flow diagram

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 Creating a Set of DFDs
 Create a graphical model of the information
system based on your fact-finding results
◦ First, you will review a set of guidelines for
drawing DFDs
◦ Then you will learn how to apply these guidelines
and create a set of DFDs using a three-step
process

14
 Creating a Set of DFDs (Cont.)

 Keep in mind:
◦ All flow lines must
be labeled
◦ Large processes can
be broken down into
smaller components

FIGURE 5-11 Examples of correct

and incorrect uses of data flows

15
 Creating a Set of DFDs (Cont.)

 Guidelines for Drawing DFDs

◦ Draw the context diagram so that it fits on one page
◦ Use the name of the information system as the
process name in the context diagram
◦ Use unique names within each set of symbols
◦ Do not cross lines
◦ Provide a unique name and reference number for
each process
◦ Ensure that the model is accurate, easy to
understand, and meets the needs of its users

16
 Creating a Set of DFDs (Cont.)

 Step 1:
Draw a
Context
Diagram

FIGURE 5-13 Context

diagram DFD for an order
system

17
 Creating a Set of DFDs (Cont.)

 Step
2: Draw a
Diagram 0 DFD
◦ If same data flows in
both directions, you
can use a double-
headed arrow
◦ Diagram 0 is an
exploded view of
process 0
◦ Parent diagram
◦ Child diagram
◦ Functional primitive
FIGURE 5-16 Diagram 0
DFD for the order system

18
 Creating a Set of DFDs (Cont.)

 Step 3:
Draw the
Lower Level
Diagrams

FIGURE 5-17 Diagram 1

DFD shows details of the
FILLORDER process in
the order system 19
 Creating a Set of DFDs (Cont.)

 Must use leveling and

balancing techniques
 Leveling examples
◦ Uses a series of
increasingly detailed
DFDs to describe an
information
system
◦ Exploding, partitioning,
or decomposing

FIGURE 5-18 This diagram does

not show the symbols that
connect to data flows entering or
leaving FILL ORDER on the
context diagram
20
Creating a Set of DFDs (Cont.)

FIGURE 5-19 The order system diagram 0 is shown at the

top of the figure, and exploded diagram 3 DFD (for the
APPLY PAYMENT process) is shown at the bottom. The two
DFDs are balanced because the child diagram at the bottom
has the same input and output flows as the parent process 3
shown at the top 21
 Creating a Set of DFDs (Cont.)

FIGURE 5-20 Example of a parent

DFD diagram, showing process 0 as a
black box

FIGURE 5-21 In the next level of

detail, the process 0 black box reveals
three processes, two data stores, and
four internal data flows — all of which
are shown inside the dashed line

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 Data Dictionary
• A data dictionary, or data repository, is a
central storehouse of information about the
system’s data
• An analyst uses the data dictionary to
collect, document, and organize specific
facts about the system
• Also defines and describes all data elements
and meaningful combinations of data
elements

23
 Data Dictionary (Cont.)

 A data element, also called a data item or

field, is the smallest piece of data that has
meaning
 Data elements are combined into records,

also called data structures

 A record is a meaningful combination of

related data elements that is included in a

data flow or retained in a data store

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 Data Dictionary (Cont.)

 Using CASE Tools for Documentation

◦ The more complex the system, the more difficult it
is to maintain full and accurate documentation
◦ Modern CASE tools simplify the task
◦ A CASE repository ensures data consistency
◦ The CASE tools in Part B of the Systems Analyst’s
Toolkit can help you document business functions
and processes
 To learn more about these tools, turn to Part B of the
four-part Toolkit that follows Chapter 12

25
 Data Dictionary (Cont.)

 Documenting the Data Elements

◦ You must document every data element in the data
dictionary
◦ The objective is the same: to provide clear,
comprehensive information about the data and
processes that make up the system

26
Data Dictionary (Cont.)

FIGURE 5-23 Using an online documentation form, the analyst

has recorded information for a data element named SOCIAL
SECURITY NUMBER. Later, the analyst will create a data
dictionary entry using a CASE tool

27
 Data Dictionary (Cont.)

 Documenting the Data

Elements
◦ Data element name and label
◦ Alias
◦ Type and length
◦ Default value
◦ Acceptable values - Domain
and validity rules
◦ Source
◦ Security
◦ Responsible user(s)
◦ Description and comments FIGURE 5-24 A Visible Analyst screen describes
the data element named SOCIAL SECURITY
NUMBER. Notice that many of the items were
entered from the online form shown in Figure 5-23

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 Data Dictionary (Cont.)

 Documenting the
Data Flows
◦ Data flow name or label
◦ Description
◦ Alternate name(s)
◦ Origin
◦ Destination
◦ Record
◦ Volume and frequency
FIGURE 5-25 In the upper screen, an analyst has entered four
items of information in an online documentation form. The lower
screen shows the same four items entered into a Visible Analyst
data dictionary form

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 Data Dictionary (Cont.)

 Documenting the Data

Stores
◦ Data store name or label
◦ Description
◦ Alternate name(s)
◦ Attributes
◦ Volume and frequency

FIGURE 5-26 Visible Analyst screen that documents a

data store named IN STOCK

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 Data Dictionary (Cont.)

 Documenting the
Processes
◦ Process name or label
◦ Description
◦ Process number
◦ Process description
FIGURE 5-27 Visible Analyst screen that describes a
process named VERIFY ORDER
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 Data Dictionary (Cont.)

 Documenting the
Entities
◦ Entity name
◦ Description
◦ Alternate name(s)
◦ Input data flows
◦ Output data flows

FIGURE 5-28 Visible Analyst screen that documents

an external entity named WAREHOUSE

32
 Data Dictionary (Cont.)

 Documenting
the Records
◦ Record or data
structure name
◦ Definition or
description
◦ Alternate name(s)
◦ Attributes

FIGURE 5-29 Visible Analyst screen that documents a

record, or data structure named CREDIT STATUS

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 Data Dictionary (Cont.)

• Data Dictionary Reports

– Many valuable reports
• An alphabetized list of all data elements by name
• A report describing each data element and indicating
the user or department that is responsible for data
entry, updating, or deletion
• A report of all data flows and data stores that use a
particular data element
• Detailed reports showing all characteristics of data
elements, records, data flows, processes, or any other
selected item stored in the data

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 Process Description Tools
 Typical process description tools include
structured English, decision tables, and
decision trees
 Process description tools also can be used in

object-oriented development
◦ O-O programmers use different terminology. They
create the same kind of modular coding structures,
except that the processes, or methods, are stored
inside the objects, rather than as separate
components

35
 Process Description Tools (Cont.)

 Modular Design
◦ Based on
combinations of three FIGURE 5-30 Sequence structure

logical structures,
sometimes called
control structures,
which serve as
building blocks for
the process FIGURE 5-31 Selection structure
 Sequence
 Selection
 Iteration - looping

FIGURE 5-32 Iteration

structure 36
 Process Description Tools (Cont.)

 Structured English
◦ Must conform to the
following rules
 Use only the three
building blocks of
sequence, selection, and
iteration
 Use indentation for
readability
 Use a limited vocabulary,
including standard terms
used in the data
dictionary and specific
words that describe the
processing rules FIGURE 5-33 The VERIFY ORDER process description
includes logical rules and a structured English version of
the policy. Notice the alignment and indentation of the
logic statements
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 Process Description Tools (Cont.)

 Decision Tables
◦ Shows a logical structure, with all possible
combinations of conditions and resulting actions
◦ It is important to consider every possible
outcome to ensure that you have overlooked
nothing
◦ The number of rules doubles each time you add
a condition
◦ Can have more than two possible outcomes
◦ Often are the best way to describe a complex set
of conditions

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Process Description Tools (Cont.)

FIGURE 5-34 The Verify Order business process has two conditions. For an
order to be accepted, the product must be in stock and the customer must
have an acceptable credit status

FIGURE 5-35 Example of a simple decision table showing the processing logic
of the VERIFY ORDER process

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 Process Description Tools (Cont.)

FIGURE 5-36 A third condition has been added to the Verify Order business process. For an order
to be accepted, the product must be in stock and the customer must have an acceptable credit
status. However, the credit manager now has the authority to waive the credit status requirement

FIGURE 5-37 This table is based on the Verify Order conditions shown in Figure
5-36. With three conditions, there are eight possible combinations, or rules

40
Process Description Tools (Cont.)

FIGURE 5-38 In the first table, dashes have been added to indicate
that a condition is not relevant. In the second version, rules have
been combined. Notice that in final version, only four rules remain.
These rules document the logic, and will be transformed into
program code when the system is developed 41
 Process Description Tools (Cont.)

FIGURE 5-39 A sales promotion policy with three conditions. Notice that the first statement
contains two separate conditions – one for the 5% discount, and another for the additional discount

FIGURE 5-40 This decision table is based on the sales promotion policy in
Figure 5-39. This is the initial version of the table, before simplification
42
Process Description Tools (Cont.)

FIGURE 5-41 In this version, dashes have been added to indicate that a condition is not
relevant. At this point, it appears that several rules can be combined

43
 Process Description Tools (Cont.)

 Decision Trees
◦ Graphical representation of the conditions,
actions, and rules found in a decision table
◦ Show the logic structure in a horizontal form that
resembles a tree with the roots at the left and the
branches to the right
◦ Decision trees and decision tables provide the same
results, but in different forms
FIGURE 5-42 This example is based on the same Sales
Promotion Policy shown in the decision tables in Figures
5-40 and 5-41 on the previous page. Like a decision table,
a decision tree shows all combinations of conditions and
outcomes. The main difference is the graphical format,
which many viewers find easier to interpret

44
Logical versus Physical Models
 While structured analysis tools are used to
develop a logical model for a new information
system, such tools also can be used to
develop physical models of an information
system
 A physical model shows how the system’s

requirements are implemented

45
Logical versus Physical Models
(Cont.)

 Sequence of Models
◦ Many systems analysts create a physical
model of the current system and then
develop a logical model of the current system
before tackling a logical model of the new
system
◦ Performing that extra step allows them to
understand the current system better

46
Logical versus Physical Models (Cont.)

 Four-Model Approach
◦ Develop
 A physical model of the current system
 A logical model of the current system
 A logical model of the new system
 A physical model of the new system
◦ The only disadvantage of the four-model
approach is the added time and cost

47
Chapter Summary
• During data and process modeling, a
systems analyst develops graphical models
to show how the system transforms data into
useful information
• The end product of data and process
modeling is a logical model that will support
business operations and meet user needs
• Data and process modeling involves three
main tools: data flow diagrams, a data
dictionary, and process descriptions

48
Chapter Summary (Cont.)

 Data flow diagrams (DFDs) graphically show

the movement and transformation of data in
the information system
 DFDs use four symbols
 A set of DFDs is like a pyramid with the

context diagram at the top

 The data dictionary is the central

documentation tool for structured analysis

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Chapter Summary (Cont.)

• Each functional primitive process is

documented using structured English,
decision tables, and decision trees
• Structured analysis tools can be used to
develop a logical model during one systems
analysis phase, and a physical model during
the systems design phase

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