IS 4420

Database Fundamentals

Chapter 7:
Introduction to SQL

Leon Chen
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Systems Development Database
Life Cycle Development Process
Project Identification Enterprise modeling
and Selection
Project Initiation
and Planning Conceptual data modeling
Analysis

Logical Design Logical database design

Physical database design

Physical Design
and definition
Implementation Database implementation

Maintenance Database maintenance

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 Part Four: Implementation
 Chapter 7 – Introduction to SQL
 Chapter 8 – Advanced SQL
 Chapter 9 – Client/Server Environment
 Chapter 10 – Internet
 Chapter 11 – Data Warehousing

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 Overview
 Define a database using SQL data
definition language
 Work with Views
 Write single table queries
 Establish referential integrity

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 SQL Overview
 Structured Query Language
 The standard for relational database management
systems (RDBMS)
 SQL-92 and SQL-99 Standards – Purpose:
 Specify syntax/semantics for data definition and
manipulation
 Define data structures
 Enable portability
 Specify minimal (level 1) and complete (level 2)
standards
 Allow for later growth/enhancement to standard

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 SQL Environment
 Catalog
 A set of schemas that constitute the description of a database
 Schema
 The structure that contains descriptions of objects created by a user (base
tables, views, constraints)
 Data Definition Language (DDL)
 Commands that define a database, including creating, altering, and
dropping tables and establishing constraints
 Data Manipulation Language (DML)
 Commands that maintain and query a database
 Data Control Language (DCL)
 Commands that control a database, including administering privileges and
committing data

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 SQL Data types
(from Oracle 9i)
 String types
 CHAR(n) – fixed-length character data, n characters long Maximum
length = 2000 bytes
 VARCHAR2(n) – variable length character data, maximum 4000 bytes
 LONG – variable-length character data, up to 4GB. Maximum 1 per
table
 Numeric types
 NUMBER(p,q) – general purpose numeric data type
 INTEGER(p) – signed integer, p digits wide
 FLOAT(p) – floating point in scientific notation with p binary digits
precision
 Date/time type
 DATE – fixed-length date/time in dd-mm-yy form

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 SQL Database Definition
 Data Definition Language (DDL)
 Major CREATE statements:
 CREATE SCHEMA – defines a portion of the
database owned by a particular user
 CREATE TABLE – defines a table and its columns
 CREATE VIEW – defines a logical table from one
or more views
 Other CREATE statements: CHARACTER SET,
COLLATION, TRANSLATION, ASSERTION,
DOMAIN

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The following slides create tables for
this enterprise data model

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Relational Data Model

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Create PRODUCT table
Non-nullable specification
Primary keys
can never have
NULL values

Identifying primary key

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 Non-nullable specifications

Primary key

Some primary keys are composite –

composed of multiple attributes

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Controlling the values in attributes
Default value

Domain constraint

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Identifying foreign keys and establishing relationships

Primary key of
parent table

Foreign key of
dependent table

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 Data Integrity Controls
 Referential integrity – constraint that
ensures that foreign key values of a
table must match primary key values of
a related table in 1:M relationships
 Restricting:
 Deletes of primary records
 Updates of primary records

 Inserts of dependent records

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 Using and Defining Views
 Views provide users controlled access to tables
 Base Table – table containing the raw data
 Dynamic View
 A “virtual table” created dynamically upon request by a user
 No data actually stored; instead data from base table made available
to user
 Based on SQL SELECT statement on base tables or other views
 Materialized View
 Copy or replication of data
 Data actually stored
 Must be refreshed periodically to match the corresponding base tables

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 Sample CREATE VIEW
CREATE VIEW EXPENSIVE_STUFF_V AS
SELECT PRODUCT_ID, PRODUCT_NAME, UNIT_PRICE
FROM PRODUCT_T
WHERE UNIT_PRICE >300
WITH CHECK_OPTION;

View has a name

View is based on a SELECT statement
CHECK_OPTION works only for
updateable views and prevents updates that
would create rows not included in the view

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 Advantages of Views
 Simplify query commands
 Assist with data security (but don't rely on views
for security, there are more important security
measures)
 Enhance programming productivity
 Contain most current base table data
 Use little storage space
 Provide customized view for user
 Establish physical data independence

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 Disadvantages of Views
 Use processing time each time view is
referenced
 May or may not be directly updateable

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 Create Four Views
CREATE VIEW CUSTOMER_V AS SELECT * FROM CUSTOMER_T;

CREATE VIEW ORDER_V AS SELECT * FROM ORDER_T;

CREATE VIEW ORDER_LINE_V AS SELECT * FROM ORDER_LINE_T;

CREATE VIEW PRODUCT_V AS SELECT * FROM PRODUCT_T;

‘*’ is the wildcard

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Changing and Removing Tables
 ALTER TABLE statement allows you to
change column specifications:
 ALTER TABLE CUSTOMER_T ADD (TYPE
VARCHAR(2))
 DROP TABLE statement allows you to
remove tables from your schema:
 DROP TABLE CUSTOMER_T

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 Schema Definition
 Control processing/storage efficiency:
 Choice of indexes
 File organizations for base tables
 File organizations for indexes
 Data clustering
 Statistics maintenance
 Creating indexes
 Speed up random/sequential access to base table data
 Example
 CREATE INDEX NAME_IDX ON CUSTOMER_T(CUSTOMER_NAME)
 This makes an index for the CUSTOMER_NAME field of the
CUSTOMER_T table

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 Insert Statement
 Adds data to a table
 Inserting a record with all fields
 INSERT INTO CUSTOMER_T VALUES (001, ‘Contemporary
Casuals’, 1355 S. Himes Blvd.’, ‘Gainesville’, ‘FL’, 32601);
 Inserting a record with specified fields
 INSERT INTO PRODUCT_T (PRODUCT_ID, PRODUCT_DESCRIPTION,
PRODUCT_FINISH, STANDARD_PRICE, PRODUCT_ON_HAND) VALUES
(1, ‘End Table’, ‘Cherry’, 175, 8);
 Inserting records from another table
 INSERT INTO CA_CUSTOMER_T SELECT * FROM CUSTOMER_T WHERE
STATE = ‘CA’;

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 Delete Statement
 Removes rows from a table
 Delete certain rows
 DELETE FROM CUSTOMER_T WHERE STATE
= ‘HI’;
 Delete all rows
 DELETE FROM CUSTOMER_T;

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 Update Statement
 Modifies data in existing rows

UPDATE PRODUCT_T SET UNIT_PRICE = 775

WHERE PRODUCT_ID = 7;

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 SELECT Statement
 Used for queries on single or multiple tables
 Clauses of the SELECT statement:
 SELECT
 List the columns (and expressions) that should be returned from the query
 FROM
 Indicate the table(s) or view(s) from which data will be obtained
 WHERE
 Indicate the conditions under which a row will be included in the result
 GROUP BY
 Indicate columns to group the results
 HAVING
 Indicate the conditions under which a group will be included
 ORDER BY
 Sorts the result according to specified columns
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Figure 7-8: SQL statement
processing order

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 SELECT Example
 Find products with standard price less than
$275

SELECT PRODUCT_NAME, STANDARD_PRICE

FROM PRODUCT_V
WHERE STANDARD_PRICE < 275;

Product table
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 SELECT Example using Alias
 Alias is an alternative column or table name

SELECT CUST.CUSTOMER AS NAME,

CUST.CUSTOMER_ADDRESS
FROM CUSTOMER_V CUST
WHERE NAME = ‘Home Furnishings’;

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 SELECT Example
Using a Function
 Using the COUNT aggregate function to
find totals
 Aggregate functions: SUM(), MIN(), MAX(),
AVG(), COUNT()

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM ORDER_LINE_V

WHERE ORDER_ID = 1004;

Order line table

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SELECT Example – Boolean Operators
 AND, OR, and NOT Operators for customizing
conditions in WHERE clause

SELECT PRODUCT_DESCRIPTION, PRODUCT_FINISH,

STANDARD_PRICE
FROM PRODUCT_V
WHERE (PRODUCT_DESCRIPTION LIKE ‘%Desk’
OR PRODUCT_DESCRIPTION LIKE ‘%Table’)
AND UNIT_PRICE > 300;
Note: the LIKE operator allows you to compare strings using wildcards. For
example, the % wildcard in ‘%Desk’ indicates that all strings that have any
number of characters preceding the word “Desk” will be allowed

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 SELECT Example –
Sorting Results with the ORDER BY Clause
 Sort the results first by STATE, and within a
state by CUSTOMER_NAME

SELECT CUSTOMER_NAME, CITY, STATE

FROM CUSTOMER_V
WHERE STATE IN (‘FL’, ‘TX’, ‘CA’, ‘HI’)
ORDER BY STATE, CUSTOMER_NAME;
Note: the IN operator in this example allows you to include rows whose
STATE value is either FL, TX, CA, or HI. It is more efficient than separate
OR conditions

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 SELECT Example –
Categorizing Results Using the GROUP BY Clause

SELECT STATE, COUNT(STATE)

FROM CUSTOMER_V
GROUP BY STATE;

Note: you can use single-value fields with

aggregate functions if they are included in the
GROUP BY clause

Customer table
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 SELECT Example –
Qualifying Results by Categories
Using the HAVING Clause
 For use with GROUP BY

SELECT STATE, COUNT(STATE)

FROM CUSTOMER_V
GROUP BY STATE
HAVING COUNT(STATE) > 1;

Like a WHERE clause, but it operates on groups (categories),

not on individual rows. Here, only those groups with total
numbers greater than 1 will be included in final result

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