CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND ATTITUDES

MEASUREMENT AND SCALING

TECHNIQUE
MEASUREMENT
 Measurement

To collect data, you need to have something to

measure

Measurement is the process of

assigning numbers or scores to
characteristics or attributes of the
objects or people of interest
 MEANING
 Conversion of the characteristics or qualitative data into
analytical data.

 Process of assigning numbers to objects or observation.

 Measure physical abstract as well as objects.

 Is a process of mapping of a domain other aspects of a

range according to some rule of correspondence.
 CONCEPTS

 Mapping :

 Measurement postulates:
1. Order : Numbers are ordered. As greater than, less
than or equal to.

2. Distance : Differences between numbers.

3. Origin : Unique origin indicated by the number zero.

 Variables
• When we measure the attributes of an object, we obtain a
value that varies between objects.

• For example consider the people in this class as objects and

their height as the attribute

• The attribute height varies between objects, hence

attributes are more collectively known as variables

• Variables can be measured on four different scales

 LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

1. Nominal measurement: No order, no distance, no

origin. No qualitative value, only difference between
things. E.g. ranking players.

2. Ordinal measurement: Order but no distance, no

origin. Rank order only, precise comparison cant
make. E.g. rank.

3. Internal measurement: Both order & distance but no

origin. On some rule, lack of zero. e.g. temperature.

4. Ratio measurement : order + distance + origin. E.g.

measuring height, weight, speed etc.
 Nominal scale
Classifies data according to a
category only.
E.g., Which color people select.
Colors differ qualitatively not
quantitatively.
A number could be assigned to
each color, but it would not have
any value.
The number serves only to
identify the color.
No assumptions are made that
any color has more or less value
than any other color.
 Nominal scale

 Assign subjects to groups or categories.

 No order or distance relationship.
 No arithmetic origin.
 Only count numbers in categories.
 Only present percentages of categories.
 Chi-square most often used test of statistical
significance.
 Nominal scale

Which of the following media influences your purchasing

decisions the most?
–1 Television
–2 Radio
–3 Newspapers
–4 Magazines
 Ordinal scale
Classifies data according to
some order or rank; e.g. names
ordered alphabetically
With ordinal data, it is fair to
say that one response is greater
or less than another.
E.g. If people were asked to
rate the hotness of 3 chili
peppers, a scale of "hot",
"hotter" and "hottest" could be
used. Values of "1" for "hot",
"2" for "hotter" and "3" for
"hottest" could be assigned.
The gap between the items is unspecified.
 Ordinal scale
Can include opinion
and preference scales.
Median but not mean.
No unique, arithmetic
origin.
Items cannot be added.
In marketing research
practice, ordinal scale
variables are often
treated as interval scale
variables.
Rank Player Points Ordinal scale
1    Padraig Harrington 116     
2    Tiger Woods    78      Examples
3    Vijay Singh    62    
Small medium large
4    Phil Mickelson     54      Quality
5   Sergio Garcia 54     Likert scales, rank on a
6   Anthony Kim 46     scale of 1….5 your
degree of satisfaction
7 Kenny Perry 42
Women’s dress sizes
8  Camilo Villegas 42   
9 Trevor Immelman   30    
10   Stewart Cink 14
• Please rank the news programs offered in the following four
networks based on your preference.(1 for most preferred, 4
for least preferred).
_____ TVP1
_____ TVP2
_____ Rzeszow TV
_____ TVN
 Interval scale
Assumes that the measurements are made in
equal units.
i.e. gaps between whole numbers on the scale
are equal.
E.g. Fahrenheit and Celsius temperature scales
An interval scale does not have to have a true
zero. e.g. A temperature of "zero" does not
mean that there is no temperature...it is just an
arbitrary zero point.
Can’t perform full range of arithmetic
equations. 40 degrees is not twice as hot as 20
degrees
Permissible statistics: count/frequencies, mode,
median, mean, standard deviation
 Interval scale
•How likely are you going to buy a new automobile within the
next six months? (Please check the most appropriate category)

Definitely will not buy ___ 1

Probably will not buy ___ 2
May or may not buy ___ 3
Probably will buy ___ 4
Definitely will buy ___ 5
 Ratio scale
Similar to interval scales except that the
ratio scale has a true zero value.
E.g. the time something takes
Allows you to compare differences
between numbers.
Permits full arithmetic operation.
If a train journey takes 2 hours and 30
min, then this is half as long as a journey
which takes 5 hours.
 Ratio scale

• Indicates actual amount of variable

– Shows magnitude of differences between points on scale
– Shows proportions of differences

• All statistical techniques useable.

• Most powerful with most meaningful answers.

• Allows comparisons of absolute magnitudes.

 Examples
height, weight, age,
length
time
income
7 market share
6
1.What is your annual income
5
before taxes? $ _______
4

3
2. How far is your workplace
2
from home?
1
_______ kilometres
0
 Primary scales of measurement

Nominal Numbers
assigned to 4 81 9

runners

Ordinal Rank order of

winners

Third Second First

Place Place Place
Interval Performance
rating on a 0 to 8.2 9.1 9.6
10 Scale

Ratio Time to finish in

seconds 15.2 14.1 13.4
FUNCTIONS OF MEASUREMENT
1. Facilitates empirical description of social &
psychological phenomenon.
2. Facilitates testing of theories & hypothesis.
3. Enables to differentiate between objects or people in
terms of specific properties they possess.
TEST OF A GOOD MEASUREMENT
TOOL
In evaluating a measurement tool.
 Test of validity
 Test of reliability
 Test of practicability.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD
MEASUREMENT SCALES

1. Reliability
• The degree to which a measure accurately captures a true
outcome without error
• synonymous with repetitive consistency
2. Validity
• The degree to which a measure faithfully represents the
underlying concept (it asks the right questions)
3. Sensitivity
• The ability to discriminate meaningful differences
between attitudes.
 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
 Reliability can be more easily determined than validity

 If it is reliable, it may or may not be valid

 If a measure is valid, it may or may not be reliable

 If it is not reliable, it cannot be valid

 If it is not valid, it may or may not be reliable

 Example of low validity, high
reliability
• Scale is perfectly accurate, but is capturing the
wrong thing; for example, it measures
consumer’s interest in creative writing rather
than preference for kinds of stationery.
 Example of modest validity, low
reliability
• Scale genuinely measures consumer’s
interest in kinds of stationery, but poorly
worded items, sloppy administration, data
entry errors lead to random errors in data.
 Reliability and Validity

Neither Reliable Reliable But Reliable

Nor Valid Not Valid And Valid
TEST OF VALIDITY
Test of validity: success of scale, degree to which an
instrument measures what is suppose to.
Types

1. Content validity
2. Construct validity
3. Predictive validity
4. Concurrent validity
1. Content validity:

1. Which implies that the content of the scale correspond

to the contents of the attitude system and they are
comprehensive enough to cover full range of the
attitude.
2. Depends on researcher judgment.
3. Simple method.
2. Construction validity:

 Where attitude is impossible to measure directly.

 To find out relationship between variables.

 Complex method.

 Check – scale and theory.

3. Criterion-related validity or predictive validity:

 For empirical estimating purpose. the coefficient of

correlation between test scores & score of another
measure of known validity.

 Researcher guess the future performance from his

knowledge of the attitude score.
4. Concurrent validity:

 An attitude scale on one variable use to estimate scores

on another variable.

 Social status of respondents on the basis of their attitude

towards savings.
 TEST OF RELIABILITY
 Ability of a measuring instrument to give accurate and
consistent results.
 Methods
1. Test – retest reliability: Same respondents, same scaling
technique and under same conditions.
2. Alternative forms reliability: two forms equivalent but
not identical.
3. Split half reliability: to test the internal consistency, used
in case of a multi item instrument. It involves splitting of
a multi item measurement instrument into two equivalent
groups. Then groups are correlated to estimate reliability
 TEST OF PRACTICABILITY

Concerned with wide range of factors like

 Economy: Balance.

 Convenience: Device used should not inconvenience like

questionnaire or a measurement scale.
 Interpretability: Must provide important and relevant
information so as to facilitate interpretation in proper
perspective.
ATTITUDE
SCALING
TECHNIQUES
 ATTITUDE

 Is a response of an individual to a particular situation.

 Using scales we measure attitude.

 Analysis of data.
 Attitudes
Expressions of inner feelings that reflect whether a
person is favorably or unfavorably predisposed to
some object – a brand, a brand name, a service, a
service provider, a retail store, a company, an
advertisement; in essence, any marketing stimuli.
Opinions
A large amount of questions in marketing research
are designed to measure attitudes.
Marketing managers want to understand consumer’s
attitudes in order to influence their behavior
Three components of attitudes
The ABCs of attitudes:
 The Affective Component (based on feelings or overall
evaluation) Feelings of like or dislike.

 The Behavioral Component (likely action toward

object; e.g. from a consumer behavior point of view,
the consumer’s intention to buy a product) Intentions to
behave.

 The Cognitive Component (based on beliefs; what you

think about a marketing stimulus) – Information
possessed.
 SCALE
 Refers to the procedure by which numbers or
scores are assigned to the various degrees of
opinions, attitude & others.
 Uses of scale:
1. Reduce complexity
2. Present a single score that represents several
variables.
3. Reduces error in measurement and increases
reliability.
SCALE CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
1. Arbitrary approach
2. Consensus approach
3. Item analysis approach
4. Cumulative approach
5. Factor scales
SCALE CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
1. Arbitrary approach: based on respondents
subjective logic & scoring and to an individual
judgment. Scale is developed on an ad-hoc basis.
Most commonly used in social research.

2. Consensus approach
 Based on collective opinion.
3. ITEM ANALYSIS APPROACH
 For different types of problems
 No of individual items are developed into a test which is
given to a group of respondents
 Total score is calculated for everyone

 Individual items are then analyzed.

4. Cumulative scales
 On the basis of their conforming to some ranking of
items with ascending & descending discriminating
power.
 Mostly used for ordered behavior.
FACTOR SCALES
 On the basis of inter or correlation of items which
indicate that common factor accounts for the relationship
between items
 A classification of scaling techniques
SCALING TECHNIQUES

Comparative Non-comparative
scales scales

Paired Rank Constant Others Continuous Itemized

comparison order sum rating rating
scales scales

Semantic
Likert Stapel
differential
 Types of scaling Techniques
 COMPARATIVE SCALES
• Involve the respondent directly comparing stimulus objects.
• e.g. How does Pepsi compare with Coke on sweetness

 NON-COMPARATIVE SCALES
• Respondent scales each stimulus object independently of
other objects
•e.g. How would you rate the sweetness of Pepsi on a scale of 1
to 10
 Comparative scales:
Paired comparison items
If we have brands A, B, C and D, we would have
respondents compare
• A and B
• A and C
• A and D
• B and C
• B and D
• C and D

–usually limited to N < 15

 Comparative scales:
paired comparison items
• Please indicate which of the following airlines you
prefer by circling your more preferred airline in each
pair:
Air Canada WestJet
Air Transat Air Canada
Horizon Air WestJet
WestJet Air Transat
Air Canada Horizon Air
Horizon Air Air Transat
 Comparative scales:
Constant sum scales
Allocate a total of 100 points among the following soft-
drinks depending on how favorable you feel toward each;
the more highly you think of each soft-drink, the more
points you should allocate to it. (Please check that the
allocated points add to 100.)
Coca-Cola _____ points
7-Up _____ points
Mirinda _____ points
Fanta _____ points
Pepsi-Cola _____ points
100 points
 Comparative scales:
Constant sum scales
Please divide 100 points among the following characteristics
so the division reflects the relative importance of each
characteristic to you in the selection of a bank
Hours of service ________________
Friendliness _______________
Distance from home ________________
Investment vehicles ________________
Parking facilities __________________
 Comparative scales:
Rank order scales
Rank the following soft-drinks from 1 (best) to 5 (worst)
according to your taste preference:
Coca-Cola _____
7-Up _____
Fanta _____
Pepsi-Cola _____
Mountain Dew _____

√ Top and bottom rank choices are ‘easy’

√ Middle ranks are usually most ‘difficult’
 A classification of scaling techniques
SCALING TECHNIQUES

Comparative Non-comparative
scales scales

Paired Rank Constant Others Continuous Itemized

comparison order sum rating rating
scales scales

Semantic
Likert Stapel
differential
 Non comparative scale
Continuous scale
• How would you rate Stat. Analysis to other
courses this term
The worst X X The Best
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100


Non-comparative scale
 Itemized Rating Scales

Semantic The Likert scale Stapel scale

differential
scale
Non-Comparative Scales
 Semantic differential scale

Here are a number of statements that could be used to describe

Tesco. For each statement tick ( ) the box that best
describes your feelings about Tesco.

Modern Store Old- fashioned store

Low prices High prices
Unfriendly staff Friendly staff
Narrow product range Wide product range
Sophisticated customers Unsophisticated customers
 Likert scale
Strongly Disagree Neither agree Agree Strongly
disagree nor disagree agree
Cost is the most important 1 2 3 4 5
consideration when buying a
new car
AGREEMENT To what extent do you agree or disagree that
Pudliszki is a high quality brand?

•Agree strongly 
•Strongly agree  •Agree moderately 
•Agree  •Agree slightly  •Agree 
•Agree 
•Undecided  •Disagree slightly  •Undecided 
•Disagree
•Disagree  •Disagree •Disagree
•Strongly disagree moderately 
•Disagree strongly

•Completely agree 
•Agree very strongly  •Disagree strongly  •Mostly agree 
•Agree strongly  •Disagree  •Slightly agree 
•Agree  •Tend to disagree 
  •Slightly disagree 
•Disagree  •Tend to agree  •Mostly disagree
•Disagree strongly  •Agree  •Completely
•Disagree very strongly •Agree strongly
disagree
FREQUENCY How frequently do you go swimming?

•Very frequently •Always 

•Always 
•Frequently •Very frequently •Almost always 
•Usually 
•Occasionally •Occasionally  •To a considerable degree 
•About half the time 
•Rarely  •Rarely  •Occasionally
•Seldom 
•Very rarely •Very rarely  •Seldom
•Never
•Never •Never

•A great deal  •Always 

•Often 
•Much  •Very often 
•Sometimes 
•Somewhat  •Sometimes 
•Seldom 
•Little  •Rarely 
•Never
•Never •Never
IMPORTANCE How important is price to you when purchasing jeans?

•Very important 
•Important 
•Moderately important  •Very important 
•Of little importance  •Moderately important 
•Unimportant •Unimportant

QUALITY How would you rate the quality of Toshiba laptops?

•Very good  •Extremely poor 

•Good  •Below average  •Good 
•Barely acceptable  •Average  •Fair 
•Poor  •Above average  •Poor
•Very poor •Excellent
LIKELIHOOD How likely will you be to purchase a car in the
next 6 months?

•To a great extent 

•Likely   •Somewhat  •True 
•Unlikely •Very little  •False
•Not at all
•Definitely  •Almost always true 
•Very probably  •Usually true  •True of myself 
•Probably  •Often true  •Mostly true of myself 
•Possibly  •Occasionally true  •About halfway true of myself 
•Probably not  •Sometimes but infrequently true  •Slightly true of myself 
•Very probably •Usually not true  •Not at all true of myself
not •Almost never true
 Stapel scale
+5 +5
Rank university BAREK on
+4 +4
the quality of its food and
+3 +3
+2 +2
service.
+1 +1
quality service
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5
 A Stapel scale for measuring a store’s image
Select a plus number for words that
you think describe the store Tesco
accurately. The more accurately you
think the work describes the store, +5 +5 +5
the larger the plus number you +4 +4 +4
should choose. Select a minus +3 +3 +3
number for words you think do not +2 +2 +2
describe the store accurately. The +1 +1 +1
HIGH POOR WIDE
less accurately you think the word QUALITY SERVICE VARIETY
describes the store, the larger the -1 -1 -1
minus number you should choose, -2 -2 -2
therefore, you can select any number -3 -3 -3
from +5 for words that you think are -4 -4 -4
very accurate all the way to -5 for -5 -5 -5
words that you think are very
inaccurate.
 SOME BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
WHEN SELECTING A SCALE

Odd or even number

Number of categories of scale categories

Forced versus non-forced

choice Balanced versus non-
balanced alternatives
 Odd versus even
if neutral responses likely, use odd number

Odd Even
Strongly agree _____ Strongly agree_____
Agree _____ Agree _____
Neutral _____ Disagree _____
Disagree _____ Strongly disagree___
Strongly disagree_____
 Balanced vs. Unbalanced

Balanced Unbalanced
Very good ______ Excellent ______
Good ______ Very good ______
Fair ______ Good ______
Poor ______ Fair ______
Very poor ______ Poor ______
 Forced vs. Unforced

Forced Unforced

Extremely reliable ___ Extremely reliable ___

Very reliable ___ Very reliable ___

Somewhat reliable ___ Somewhat reliable ___

Somewhat unreliable ___ Somewhat unreliable ___

Very unreliable ___ Very unreliable ___

Extremely unreliable ___ Extremely unreliable ___

Don’t know ___
 Labeled vs. End anchored

Labeled End Anchored

Excellent _____ Excellent _____
Very good _____ _____

Fair _____ _____

Poor _____ _____

Very Poor _____ Poor _____

 Intervals may not reflect the semantic
meaning of the Adjectives

Excellent _____

Labeled Intervals are

not equal
Excellent _____
Very good _____ Very good _____

Fair _____ Fair _____

Poor _____ Poor _____

Intervals are
Very poor _____ not equal

Very poor _____

 Number of scale points

5 Point 10 Point
Excellent _____ Excellent _____________

_____________

_____
_____________
_____________
_____________

_____ _____________
_____________

_____
_____________
_____________

Poor _____________

Poor _____