Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

THE ENGINEERS EDGE INSTITUTE OF NDT

No.17-A, K.R.R Nivas, 2nd Floor, Civil Aerodrome Road,
Civil Aerodrome Post, SITRA,
Coimbatore-641 014.
E-mail: [email protected], Phone No: +91-422 422 0053.
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 Introduction on Ultrasonic Testing
 The sound energy is introduced and propagates through
the materials in the form of waves.
 Whenever the sound waves meet another interface of
different acoustic impedance part of energy will be
reflected back.
 The same occurs when it meets crack, laminations or
any discontinuities
 Sound generated above 20,000 Hz is called ultrasound.
 The reflected wave signal is transformed into electrical
signal by the transducer and is displayed on a screen.
 Introduction on Ultrasonic Testing
 Ultrasonic is the production of sound waves above the
frequency of human hearing [ above 20,000 Hz or 20
KHz or cycles per second ]
 It can be used in a variety of applications such as,
distance measurements, liquid level measurement.
Ultrasonic is used in medicine and robotics, security
devices, laboratory and industrial cleaners and a host
of other applications.
 Bats use ultrasonic echo location to find it’s flying
path, search and catch insects. Bats operate in the
frequency range of 50 – 80KHz.
Ultrasonic Inspection -Sound
sending and receiving

(((( (((( ((((

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 Codes and Standards

O ASME SEC V Article 4

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 History of Ultrasonic Testing
O From very early times casting were tested for
soundness by tapping with a hammer.
O The piezo-electric effect was investigated by Jacques
and Pierre curie in 1880/81.
O Marine echo for submarines and fish detection
developed from 1912.
O In 1929 sokolov developed the first ultrasonic test
method for the detection of flaws in steel castings.
O Cathode ray tubes became available in the 1930s.
O Sproule designed and build the first pulse echo flaw
detector in 1942.
Acoustic spectrum
 Principle of UT
 Reflection of sound occurs when the Acoustic impedance
mismatch occurs

Sound energy
Properties of Sound Waves
 Properties of Sound Waves Contd
O Wavelength
 The distance covered by one complete cycle.
 It is denoted by λ.
 Properties of Sound Waves Contd
O Cycle
One complete crest and trough make a cycle.
O Frequency
The number of cycles / second.
It is denoted by f.
Unit of f is Hz or cps (cycles per second).
O Relation b/w f, V & λ
λ=v/f
 λ → wave length in mm
 v → velocity of ultrasound
 f → frequency in MHz
Properties of Sound Waves Contd
 Period
Time taken to complete one cycle
 Velocity
Velocity is the speed of energy transfer between
two points.
Velocity= frequency x wavelength
Sound Travelling Through a material
Velocity various according to the material

Compression waves Shear waves

. Steel 5920m/sec . Steel 3250m/sec

. water 1480m/sec . water NA
. Air 332m/sec .Air NA

. copper 4700m/sec .copper 2060m/sec

 Attenuation
 Attenuation is defined as the loss of energy in two

ways such as
 Absorption,

 Scattering

 Atmosphere also absorbs some energy.

 Attenuation loss
Absorption Scatter

O The larger the grains, the more

O Sound pulse hits the molecules of

the test material and makes them

scatter occurs.

vibrate. O Caused by reflections from grain

O The energy lost in vibrating the boundaries in the test material.

molecules turns to heat. O More scatter from cast iron or

O It is very high in Perspex , nylon brass than from small grained

O Low in aluminum . materials like refined steel or

annealed aluminum
Sound energy is lost in other ways
O Reflection inside the probe

O Scattering from a rough surface

O Non-metallic inclusions or laminations in test material

O Reflection from the surface of the test piece

O Mode change
 Acoustic Impedance
O Specific Acoustic Impedance (Z)
Resistance to travel of sound waves within a material.
The product of density (ρ) and acoustic velocity (V) of
that material.
Z=ρ.V
Where
ρ Density of the Medium
V Acoustic Velocity of the medium
 Ultrasound wave modes

 Longitudinal or compression wave

 Shear waves or transverse wave

 Surface waves or Rayleigh’s wave

 Longitudinal wave
 The motion of the particles are parallel to the
direction of the wave
 Travels in all media (solid, liquid & gases)
 Shear Wave
 Particle motions are perpendicular to the wave
propagation.
 The velocity of transverse wave is equal to
half velocity of the longitudinal wave.
 Travels only in solid material.
 Surface Wave
 Propagate along the surface of a metal with an

elliptical particle motion.

 Surface wave has low attenuation and high

sensitivity for detection of surface defects.

 Sound wave propagation- Contd

Longitudinal wave

Shear wave

Rayleigh wave
 Ultrasound velocity in
meters / sec

Material Longitudinal Shear

Steel 5920 3250
Aluminum 6320 3130
Acrylic 2730 1430
Water 1480 ------
 Velocity calculations

Longitudinal Wave Velocity

Where:
VL = Longitudinal Wave Velocity
E = Modulus of Elasticity
ρ = Density
μ = Poisson's Ratio
 Velocity calculations-Contd.
Shear Wave Velocity
Where:
Vs = Shear Wave Velocity
E = Modulus of Elasticity
ρ = Density
μ = Poisson's Ratio
G = Shear Modulus
 Ultrasonic Reflection
Ultrasonic waves are reflected at boundaries where
there is a difference in acoustic impedances (Z) of the
materials on each side of the boundary

The greater the impedance mismatch, the greater the

percentage of energy that will be reflected at the
interface or boundary between one medium and
another

Reflection Coefficient
 Ultrasonic Transmission

 Transmission Coefficient,

T = 1-R

T = 1 -
 Piezo Electric Effect
 Electrical Energy is converted into Mechanical Energy

+
Battery
Piezoelectrical
Crystal (Quartz)
 Terminology
O Piezo electric effect
O Converts electrical energy into mechanical energy
and vice versa.
O Using crystal metal.
O Piezo electric material
O Lithium sulphates, polarized lithium sulphate,
barium titanate, lead zincronate titanate.
O Direct effect: The mechanical energy is converted into
electrical energy.
O Reverse effect: The electrical energy is converted
to mechanical energy.
 Types of probes
 NORMAL PROBE
 TWIN CRYSTAL OR T/R PROBE
 ANGLE PROBE
 Setting of UT machine depending on
probe usage
S. Longitudinal wave –TR Shear wave –Angle
No or Normal Probe probe
1 Range 0-50 mm Range 0-100 mm
2 Velocity 5920 m/s Velocity 3250 m/s
3 Mode T-R Mode T+R
4 Gate (First back-wall Gate (First reference
echo) echo)
5 Gain (dB) Increase or Gain (dB) Increase or
decrease Decrease
6 Angle 0⁰ Angle 45⁰, 60⁰, 70⁰
7 Probe Zero Adjustment Probe Zero Adjustment
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Difference between Single crystal and Dual crystal

Single Crystal Dual Crystal

Attached with single Attached with dual cable

cable
Dead Zone will occur No Dead Zone because of
the presence of transmitter
and receiver.
Near surface defect Near surface defect can be
cannot be detected detected
Higher thickness material Limited thickness material
can be inspected can only be inspected.
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 ULTRASONIC PROBES
socket Delay / protecting face
crystal Electrical matching
Damping Cable

TR-probe Angle beam probe

Straight beam
probe
Normal probe
TWIN CRYSTAL OR T/R PROBE
Angle probe
 The Decibel(dB)
O The decibel is a logarithmic base unit used to compare

sound intensities.
O A change in sound intensity , expressed in dB, can be

measured by comparing signal height on a calibrated

screen.
O The change in dB is given by the formula.

Difference in dB =20log10(H2/H1)
 Inspection techniques
 Pulse echo technique

 Through transmission technique

 Transmission with Reflection.

 Pulse Echo Testing
O Single probe is used to both transmit and receive ultrasound.

O Gives an indication of the type of defect, its size and its exact location.

O It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities.

O The depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is

superior to other NDT methods.

O Only single-sided access is needed when the pulse-echo technique

is used.
O It is highly accurate in determining reflector position and

estimating size and shape.

Pulse Echo Technique
Pulse Echo technique
Pulse echo technique
Pulse echo technique
Pulse echo technique
 Through Transmission Testing
O Transmitting and receiving probe on opposite sides of

the specimen.
O Presence of defect indicated by reduction in
transmission signal.
O No indication of defect location.
Through Transmission Testing
 Through transmission technique
Through transmission signal

1 T R 1

2
2 T R
0 2 4 6 8 10

Flaw
 Through Transmission Testing
Advantage Disadvantage
O Less attenuation. O Defect not located.

O No probe ringing. O Defect can’t be identified.

O Orientation does not O Vertical defect don’t show

matter O Need access to both

surface.
 Transmission with
reflection(or)Tandem Scanning

Mainly to locate defects lying perpendicular to the surface

Use of two or more angle probes of the same angle of
incidence and facing the same direction with one probe
acting as the transmitter and the other(s) as receivers
 The sound Beam

O Dead zone.
O Near zone or Fresnel.
O Far zone or Fraunhofer.
The sound Beam
 The Sound Beam

Near zone Far zone

O Thickness measurement. O Thickness measurement.

O Detection of defect. O Detection of defects.

O Sizing of large defect O Sizing of all defect.

only.
O Near zone length as
small as possible.
 Near field / Fresnel field
O The near field distance depends on the size and
frequency of the transducer and the effective wave
length in the test material.
 Near field
N= d2/4 
Where,
D = Diameter of the crystal
 = Wave length
                                                   
Beam spread
Where:
θ = Beam divergence angle from centerline to point where signal
is at half strength.  
V = Sound velocity in the material. (m/sec) 
D = Diameter of the transducer. (mm) 
F = Frequency of the transducer. (cycles/second)
 Snell’s law

Where:
V1 is the wave velocity in material 1
V2 is the velocity in material 2
θ1 is Incident angle
θ2 is Refracted angle
 Ghost Echoes

O Pulse repetition frequency(PRF)or Pulse repetition rate

(PRR)
O PRF is the number of pulses of ultrasonic energy that

leave the probe in a given time(usually per second).

O Each pulse of energy that leaves the probe must return

before the next pulse leave , otherwise they collide

causing “ghost” echo to appear on the CRT screen
 Scanning methods
 A - Scan Display

 B - Scan Display

 C – Scan Display

D - Scan Display
Ultrasonic displays

A scan
Time or distance along X axis
Returned echo amplitude Y axis

B scan-End view

C scan-plan view

D scan-side view
 A – Scan display
 A typical A-scan system records both the amplitude
and depth of a defect on the CRT oscilloscope screen.

The height of an echo relates to the amplitude of the

reflected sonic power, which indirectly relates to the
magnitude of the discontinuity
 A – Scan display Contd.
Amplitude
 B – Scan display
 Cross sectional view of the object being tested and
shows the length and depth of a flaw in the test
material
 C – Scan display
 Two dimensional graphical presentation, in which
the discontinuity echoes are displayed in a top view
on the test specimen surface
 Types of calibration blocks and
reference blocks
O There are various types of calibration blocks such as,
O IIW V1 block (International Institute of Welding V1
block)
Types of calibration blocks and
reference blocks - Contd
O IIW V2 block (International Institute of
Welding V2 block)

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Types of calibration blocks and
reference blocks - Contd
O DAC block (Distance Amplitude correction
curve block)

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Types of calibration blocks and
reference blocks - Contd

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Specifications of calibration block
Block Type Thickness Radius

IIW V1 block 25mm 25mm, 100mm

IIW V2 block 12.5 mm 25mm, 50mm

DAC 19mm -

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 Scanning with normal probe

 Study the job

 Probe selection
– Up to 100 mm job thick to use 4 MHz probe
– above 100 mm job thick to use 2 MHz probe
 Calibration
– To calibrate the equipment using standard blocks.
 Draw dac (distance amplitude correction) curve
 Scanning the test part
Probe Calibration
 Calibrate the machine using V1 block

 Vertical linearity checking(size of the defect)

 Horizontal linearity checking(depth of the defect)

 Resolution checking

 Sensitivity checking

 Penetration checking
 Skip distance
 Half Skip Distance = T x tan θ

 Full Skip Distance = 2T x tan θ

Where,
T – Thickness of the Material
θ – Probe Angle
 Sensitivity
The ability of an ultrasonic system to find the smallest
specified defect at the maximum testing range.
Depends upon
O Probe and flaw detector combination.

O Material properties.

O Probe frequency.

O Signal-to-noise ratio.
 Skip factors
O Skip distance=t*tanθ
O Beam path=t/cosθ

½ skip stand-off full skip stand-off

• Weld root-half skip from both sides

• Weld body-half skip to full skip from both sides
 Scanning procedure
O Parent material.

O Root inspection.

O Side wall inspection.

O Weld body.
Scanning procedure.
 (DAC) Curves Uses
O A quick way of accepting or rejecting discontinuities

without too much time consumed in sizing reflectors.

O Some idea can be gained of the discontinuities size in

relation to reference holes.

O Uniformity provided by all technicians constructing

their curves from the same test block.

O Curves must be constructed for each probe .
 Defect identification

O Pattern 1 O Pattern 2
 Defect identification - Contd

O Pattern 3a O Pattern 3b O Pattern 4

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Defect identification - Contd
 Advantages of UT
 Depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement
is superior to other methods
 Fast response time, Permits high speed automatic
testing in ultrasonic systems.
 Ultrasonic testing has the advantage of detecting
discontinuities with access to only one side of the test
specimen.
 Accurate determination
 There is no human hazardous.
 Disadvantage of UT
 Surface finish and roughness can interfere with
inspection.
 Requires full scanning of entire test area.
 Requires a coupling medium which makes recording
difficulties.
 Thin parts may be difficult to inspect.
 Reference standards are often needed.
 Technician skill is more important than other methods.
Thank you!!!

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