Group Theory

Examples on Kernel of
a Homomorphism
Examples on Kernel of a Homomorphism

Let h: G→G' be a
homomorphism and let
e' be the identity
element of G'. Now {e'}
is a subgroup of G', so
h-1[{e'}] is a subgroup K
of G. This subgroup is
critical to the study of
homomorphisms.
Examples on Kernel of a Homomorphism

Definition
Let h: G→G' be a
homomorphism of
groups. The subgroup
h-1[{e'}]={x∊G| h(x)=e'}
is the kernel of h,
denoted by Ker(h).
Examples on Kernel of a Homomorphism
Example
Let ℝn be the additive
group of column vectors
with n real-number
components. (This group is
of course isomorphic to
the direct product of ℝ
under addition with itself
for n factors.) Let A be an
m x n matrix of real
numbers. Let ϕ: ℝn→ℝm
be defined by ϕ(v)=Av for
each column vector v∊ℝn.
4
Examples on Kernel of a Homomorphism
Example
Then ϕ is a
homomorphism, since v,
w∊ℝn, matrix algebra
shows that
ϕ(v+w)=A(v+w)
=Av+Aw=ϕ(v)+ϕ(w)
In linear algebra, such a
map computed by
multiplying a column
vector on the left by a
matrix A is known as a
linear transformation. 5
Examples on Kernel of a Homomorphism

Ker(h) is called the null

space of A. It consists of
all v ∊ ℝn such that
Av = 0, the zero vector.
Group Theory

Examples on Kernel of
a Homomorphism
Examples on Kernel of a Homomorphism

Example
Let GL(n, ℝ) be the
multiplicative group of
all invertible n x n
matrices. Recall that a
matrix A is invertible if
and only if its
determinant, det(A), is
nonzero.

8
Examples on Kernel of a Homomorphism

Recall also that for matrices A,

B ∊GL(n, ℝ) we have
det(AB)=det(A)det(B). This
means that det is a
homomorphism mapping GL(n,
ℝ) into the multiplicative group
ℝ* of nonzero real numbers.
Ker(det)
= {A∊ GL(n, ℝ)|det(A)=1}.

9
Examples on Kernel of a Homomorphism

Homomorphisms of a
group G into itself are
often useful for studying
the structure of G. Our
next example gives a
nontrivial
homomorphism of a
group into itself.

10
Examples on Kernel of a Homomorphism
Example
Let r∊ℤ and let ϕr: ℤ→ℤ
be defined by ϕr(n)=rn
for all n∊ℤ. For all m,
n∊ℤ, we have
ϕr(m+n)=r(m + n)
=rm+rn=ϕr (m)+ϕr(n) so
ϕr is a homomorphism.

11
Examples on Kernel of a Homomorphism

Note that ϕ0 is the trivial

homomorphism, ϕ1 is the
identity map, and ϕ-1
maps ℤ onto ℤ. For all
other r in ℤ, the map ϕr
is not onto ℤ.
Ker(ϕ0)= ℤ
Ker(ϕr)= {0} for r≠0

12
Group Theory

Examples on Kernel of
a Homomorphism
Examples on Kernel of a Homomorphism

Example (Reduction
Modulo n)
Let y be the natural map
of ℤ into ℤn given by y(m)
= r, where r is the
remainder given by the
division algorithm when
m is divided by n. Show
that y is a
homomorphism. Find
Ker(y).
14
Examples on Kernel of a Homomorphism

Solution
We need to show that y(s+t)=y(s)+y(t) for s, t ∊ ℤ.
Using the division algorithm, we let
s=q1n+r1 (1) and
t=q2n+r2 (2) where 0≤ri<n for i=1, 2.
If r1+r2=q3n+r3 (3) for 0≤r3<n then adding Eqs. (1)
and (2) we see that s + t = (q1 + q2 + q3)n + r3, so that
y(s+t)=r3. From Eqs. (1) and (2) we see that
y(s) =r1 and y(t)=r2. Equation (3) shows that
the sum r1+r2 in ℤn is equal to r3 also. 15
Examples on Kernel of a Homomorphism

Consequently y(s+t)=y(s)
+y(t),
so we do indeed have a
homomorphism.
Ker(y)=nℤ

16
Group Theory

Kernel of a
Homomorphism
Kernel of a Homomorphism
Theorem
Let h be a
homomorphism from a
group G into a group G’.
Let K be the kernel of h.
Then
a K = {x in G | h(x) = h(a)}
= h -1[{h(a)}] and also
K a = {x in G | h(x) = h(a)}
= h -1[{h(a)}]
 Kernel of a Homomorphism

Let K=Ker(h) for a homomorphism h:G→G'. We think

of h as "collapsing" K down onto e‘. Above Theorem
shows that for g ∊ G, the cosets gK and Kg are the
same, and are collapsed onto the single element
h(g) by h. That is h-1[{h(g)}]=gK=Kg. We have
attempted to symbolize this collapsing in Fig. below,
where the shaded rectangle represents G, the solid
vertical line segments represent the cosets of
K= Ker(h), and the horizontal line at the bottom
represents G'.

19
Kernel of a Homomorphism
h-1[{a'}] bK K xK h-1[{y'}]

G'
a' h(b) e' h(x) y'

Cosets of K collapsed by h

20
 Kernel of a Homomorphism

We view h as projecting the elements of G, which

are in the shaded rectangle, straight down onto
elements of G', which are on the horizontal line
segment at the bottom. Notice the downward
arrow labeled h at the left, starting at G and ending
at G'. Elements of K=Ker(h) thus lie on the solid
vertical line segment in the shaded box lying over e',
as labeled at the top of the figure.

21
Group Theory

Kernel of a
Homomorphism
Kernel of a Homomorphism
Example
We have |z1z2|=|z1||z2|
for complex numbers z1
and z2. This means that
the absolute value
function | | is a
homomorphism of the
group ℂ* of nonzero
complex numbers under
multiplication onto the
group ℝ+ of positive real
numbers under
multiplication. 23
 Kernel of a Homomorphism

Since {1} is a subgroup of ℝ+, the complex numbers

of magnitude 1 form a subgroup U of ℂ*. Recall
that the complex numbers can be viewed as filling
the coordinate plane, and that the magnitude of a
complex number is its distance from the origin.
Consequently, the cosets of U are circles with
center at the origin. Each circle is collapsed by this
homomorphism onto its point of intersection with
the positive real axis.
Group Theory

Kernel of a
Homomorphism
Kernel of a Homomorphism
Theorem
Let h be a
homomorphism from a
group G into a group G’.
Let K be the kernel of h.
Then
a K = {x in G | h(x) = h(a)}
= h -1[{h(a)}] and also
K a = {x in G | h(x) = h(a)}
= h -1[{h(a)}]
 Kernel of a Homomorphism
Above theorem shows that the kernel of a group
homomorphism h:G→G' is a subgroup K of G whose
left and right cosets coincide, so that gK=Kg for all g
∊ G. When left and right cosets coincide, we can
form a coset group G/K. Furthermore, we have
seen that K then appears as the kernel of a
homomorphism of G onto this coset group in a very
natural way. Such subgroups K whose left and right
cosets coincide are very useful in studying normal
group.
 Kernel of a Homomorphism

Example
Let D be the additive group of all differentiable
functions mapping ℝ into ℝ, and let F be the
additive group of all functions mapping ℝ into ℝ
Then differentiation gives us a map ϕ: D→F, where
ϕ(f)=f' for f∊F. We easily see that ϕ is a
homomorphism, for ϕ(f+g)=(f+g)'=f'+g'=ϕ(f)+ϕ(g);
the derivative of a sum is the sum of the derivatives.

28
 Kernel of a Homomorphism

Now Ker(ϕ) consists of all functions f such that f'=0.

Thus Ker(ϕ) consists of all constant functions, which
form a subgroup C of F. Let us find all functions in G
mapped into x2 by ϕ, that is, all functions whose
derivative is x2. Now we know that x3/3 is one such
function. By previous theorem, all such functions
form the coset x3/3+C.

29
Group Theory

Examples of Group
Homomorphisms
Examples of Group Homomorphisms

Example (Evaluation Homomorphism)

Let F be the additive group of all functions mapping
ℝ into ℝ, let ℝ be the additive group of real
numbers, and let c be any real number. Let
ϕ: F→ℝ be the evaluation homomorphism defined
by ϕc(f)= f(c) for f∊F. Recall that, by definition, the
sum of two functions f and g is the function f + g
whose value at x is f (x) + g(x). Thus we have
ϕc(f+g)=(f+g)(c)=f(c)+g(c)=ϕc(f)+ϕc(g), so we have a
homomorphism.
31
 Examples of Group Homomorphisms

Composition of group homomorphisms is again a

group homomorphism. That is, if
ϕ: G→G' and y: G'→G" are both group
homomorphisms then their composition
(y∘ϕ): G→G", where (y∘ϕ)(g) = y(ϕ(g)) for g ∊ G, is
also a homomorphism.

32
Group Theory

Examples of Group
Homomorphisms
 Examples of Group Homomorphisms

Example
Let G=G1 x ··· x Gi x ··· x Gn be a direct product of
groups. The projection map πi: G→Gi where
πi(g1, ···, gi, ··· , gn) = gi is a homomorphism for each
i=1, ··· , n.
This follows immediately from the fact that the
binary operation of G coincides in the ith
component with the binary operation in Gi.

34
 Examples of Group Homomorphisms

Example
Let F be the additive group of continuous functions
with domain [0, 1] and let ℝ be the additive group of
real numbers. The map σ:F→ℝ defined by
σ(f)=∫01f(x)dx for f ∊ F is a homomorphism, for
σ(f+g)=∫01(f+g)(x)dx=∫01[f(x)+g(x)]dx=
∫01f(x)dx+∫01g(x)dx=σ(f)+σ(g) for all f, g ∊ F.

35
Examples of Group Homomorphisms

Each of the homomorphisms in the preceding two

examples is a many-to-one map. That is, different
points of the domain of the map may be carried
into the same point. Consider, for illustration, the
homomorphism π1: ℤ2 x ℤ4→ℤ2 We have
π1(0, 0)=π1(0, 1)= π1(0, 2)= π1(0, 3)=0, so four
elements in ℤ2 x ℤ4 are mapped into 0 in ℤ2 by π1.

36
Group Theory

Factor Groups from

Homomorphisms
Factor Groups from Homomorphisms

Let G be a group and let S be a set having the same

cardinality as G. Then there is a one-to-one
correspondence ↔ between S and G. We can use ↔
to define a binary operation on S, making S into a
group isomorphic to G. Naively, we simply use the
correspondence to rename each element of G by
the name of its corresponding (under ↔) element in
S. We can describe explicitly the computation of xy
for x, y ∊ S as follows:
if x ↔ g1 and y ↔ g2 and z↔ g1g2, then xy=z (1)

38
Factor Groups from Homomorphisms

The direction → of the one-to-one correspondence

s↔g between s∊S and g∊G gives us a one-to-one
function µ mapping S onto G. The direction ← of ↔
gives us the inverse function µ-1. Expressed in terms
→

of µ, the computation (1) of xy for x, y ∊ S becomes

if µ(x)=g1 and µ(y)=g2 and µ(z)=g1g2, then xy=z (2)
The map µ: S→G now becomes an isomorphism
mapping the group S onto the group G. Notice that
from (2), we obtain µ(xy)=µ(z)=g1g2=µ(x)µ(y), the
required homomorphism property.
39
Group Theory

Factor Groups from

Homomorphisms
Factor Groups from Homomorphisms

Let G and G' be groups,

let h: G→G' be a
homomorphism, and let
K=Ker(h). The previous
→
theorem shows that for
a∊G, we have
h-1[{h(a)}]=aK =Ka. We
have a one-to-one
correspondence aK
↔h(a) between cosets of
K in G and elements of
the subgroup h[G] of G'.
Factor Groups from Homomorphisms

Remember that if x∊aK, so that x=ak for some k∊K,

then h(x)=h(ak)=h(a)h(k)=h(a)e'
=h(a), so the computation of the element of h[G]
corresponding to the coset aK=xK is the same
→

whether we compute it as h(a) or as h(x ). Let us

denote the set of all cosets of K by G/K. (We read
G/K as "G over K" or as "G modulo K" or as "G mod
K," but never as "G divided by K.")
Factor Groups from Homomorphisms

We started with a homomorphism h: G→G' having

kernel K, and we finished with the set G/K of cosets
in one-to-one correspondence with the elements of
the group h[G]. In our work above that, we had a set
→

S with elements in one-to-one correspondence

with a those of a group G, and we made S into a
group isomorphic to G with an isomorphism µ.

43
Factor Groups from Homomorphisms

Replacing S by G / H and replacing G by h[G] in

that construction, we can consider G/K to be a group
isomorphic to h[G] with that isomorphism µ. In
terms of G/K and h[G], the computation (2) of the
→

product (xK)(yK) for xK, yK ∊ G/K becomes if

µ(xK)=h(x) and µ(yK)=h(y) and µ(zK)=h(x)h(y), then
(xK)(yK)=zK. (3)
Factor Groups from Homomorphisms

But because h is a homomorphism, we can easily

find z∊G such that µ(zK)=h(x )h(y ); namely, we take
z=xy in G, and find that µ(zK)=µ(xyK)=h(xy)=h(x)h(y).
This shows that the product (xK)(yK) of two cosets is
the coset (xy)K that contains the product xy of x and
→

y in G. While this computation of (xK)(yK) may seem

to depend on our choices x from xK and y from yK,
our work above shows it does not. We demonstrate
it again here because it is such an important point. If
k1, k2 ∊ K so that xk1 is an element of xK and yk2 is an
element of yK, then there exists h3 ∊ K such that
k1y= yk3 because Ky= yK by previous Theorem.
45
Factor Groups from Homomorphisms

Thus we have
(xk1)(yk2)=x(k1y)k2=x(yk3)k2=(xy)(k3k2) ∊ (xy)K,
so we obtain the same coset. Computation of the
product of two cosets is accomplished by choosing
→

an element from each coset and taking, as product

of the cosets, the coset that contains the product in
G of the choices. Any time we define something
(like a product) in terms of choices, it is important to
show that it is well defined, which means that it is
independent of the choices made.

46
Group Theory

Factor Groups from

Homomorphisms
Factor Groups from Homomorphisms

Theorem
Let h: G→G' be a group
homomorphism with kernel K.
Then the cosets of K form a
factor group, G/K. where (aK)
→

(bK)=(ab)K. Also, the map µ:

G/H→h[G]
defined by µ(aK)=h(a) is an
isomorphism. Both coset
multiplication and µ are well
defined, independent of the
choices a and b from the cosets.
Factor Groups from Homomorphisms

Example
Consider the map y: ℤ→ℤn, where y(m) is the
remainder when m is divided by n in accordance
with the division algorithm. We know that y is a
→

homomorphism. Of course, Ker(y) = nℤ. By above

Theorem, we see that the factor group ℤ/nℤ is
isomorphic to ℤn. The cosets of nℤ are the residue
classes modulo n.

49
Factor Groups from Homomorphisms

For example, taking n = 5, we see the cosets of 5ℤ are

5ℤ={…, -10, -5, 0, 5, 10,…},
1 +5ℤ = {…, -9, -4, 1, 6, 11,…},
2 + 5ℤ = {…, -8, -3, 2, 7, 12,…},
→

3 +5ℤ = {…, -7, -2, 3, 8, 13,…}

4+5ℤ = {…, -6, -1, 4, 9, 14,…}.
Note that the isomorphism µ: ℤ/5ℤ→ ℤ5 of previous
Theorem assigns to each coset of 5ℤ its smallest
nonnegative element. That is, µ(5ℤ)=0, µ(1+ 5Z) = 1,
etc.
Group Theory

Factor Groups from

Homomorphisms
Factor Groups from Homomorphisms

It is very important that we

learn how to compute in a
factor group. We can multiply
(add) two cosets by choosing
→

any two representative

elements, multiplying (adding)
them and finding the coset in
which the resulting product
(sum) lies.

52
Factor Groups from Homomorphisms

Example
Consider the factor group ℤ/5ℤ with the cosets
shown in precious example. We can add (2+5ℤ)
+(4+5ℤ) by choosing 2 and 4, finding 2+4=6, and
→

noticing that 6 is in the coset 1+5ℤ. We could

equally well add these two cosets by choosing 27 in
2+5ℤ and -16 in 4+5ℤ; the sum 27+(-16)=11 is also in
the coset 1+5ℤ.

53
Factor Groups from Homomorphisms

The factor groups ℤ/nℤ in the preceding example

are classics. Recall that we refer to the cosets of nℤ
as residue classes modulo n. Two integers in the
same coset are congruent modulo n. This
→

terminology is carried over to other factor groups. A

factor group G/H is often called the factor group of G
modulo H. Elements in the same coset of H are often
said to be congruent modulo H. By abuse of
notation, we may sometimes write ℤ/nℤ=ℤn and
think of ℤn as the additive group of residue classes of
ℤ modulo n.
Group Theory

Factor Groups from

Normal Subgroups
Factor Groups from Normal Subgroups

So far, we have obtained

factor groups only from
homomorphisms. Let G
be a group and let H be a
→
subgroup of G. Now H
has both left cosets and
right cosets, and in
general, a left coset aH
need not be the same set
as the right coset Ha.

56
Factor Groups from Normal Subgroups

Suppose we try to define a binary operation on left

cosets by defining (aH)(bH)=(ab)H as in the
statement of previous theorem. The above equation
attempts to define left coset multiplication by
→

choosing representatives a and b from the cosets.

The above equation is meaningless unless it gives a
well-defined operation, independent of the
representative elements a and b chosen from the
cosets. In the following theorem, we have proved
that the above equation gives a well-defined binary
operation if and only if H is a normal subgroup of G.
57
Factor Groups from Normal Subgroups

Theorem
Let H be a subgroup of a
group G.
→

Then H is normal if and

only if
(a H )( b H) = (a b) H,
for all a, b in G

58
Factor Groups from Normal Subgroups

Above theorem shows

that if left and right
cosets of H coincide,
→
then the equation
(aH)(bH)=(ab)H, for all a,
b in G
gives a well-defined
binary operation on
cosets.

59
Factor Groups from Normal Subgroups

Theorem
If N is a normal subgroup
of (G, ·), the set of cosets
→ G/N = {Ng|g ∈ G} forms
a
group (G/N, ·), where the
operation is defined by
(Ng1)·(Ng2)=N(g1·g2).

60
Factor Groups from Normal Subgroups

Example
Since ℤ is an abelian
group, nℤ is a normal
subgroup. Above
→
theorem allows us to
construct the factor
group ℤ/nℤ with no
reference to a
homomorphism. As we
already observed, ℤ/nℤ is
isomorphic to ℤn.
61
Group Theory

Factor Groups from

Normal Subgroups
Factor Groups from Normal Subgroups

Example
Consider the abelian
group ℝ under addition,
→ and let c ∊ ℝ+. The cyclic
subgroup <c> of ℝ
contains as elements
··· -3c, -2c, -c, 0, c, 2c,
3c,···.

63
Factor Groups from Normal Subgroups

Every coset of <c> contains just one element of x

such that 0 ≤ x < c. lf we choose these elements as
representatives of the cosets when computing in
ℝ/ <c>, we find that we are computing their sum
→

modulo c in ℝc. For example, if c = 5.37, then the

sum of the cosets 4.65+<5.37> and 3.42+<5.37>
is the coset 8.07+<5.37>, which contains 8.07-5.37 =
2.7, which is 4.65+5.373.42.

64
Factor Groups from Normal Subgroups

Working with these coset elements x where 0 ≤ x <

c, we thus see that the group ℝc is isomorphic to
ℝ / <c> under an isomorphism µ where µ(x) =x+<c>
for all x ∊ ℝc. Of course, ℝ / <c> is then also
→

isomorphic to the circle group U of complex

numbers of magnitude 1 under multiplication.

65