Current and Voltage

Transformers
• THE RIGID interconnectivity existing among modern power systems make
them highly unstable when, faults are not cleared rapidly.
• If a fault in an important transmission line is not identified and removed at the
shortest possible time, it might lead to a widespread damage in the power system.
• The job of the protective relays is to identify and isolate the faults in power system
networks.
• The unpredictable nature of the power system signals during faults, make their
extraction a challenging job.
• In order to prevent the damages from spreading to the healthy parts of the power
system, the protective relaying algorithms need to detect the faults within sub
cycles of the power system frequency.
• .
• Electric power utilities use electromechanical and solid-state relays for protecting
power systems.
• Current transformers (CTs) are the basic interconnection between the power
system and almost all measurement devices such as protective relays.
• CTs step the primary current down to a nominal secondary level for use by
protective relays, meters, and other monitoring devices.
• One of the practical concerns for the protection engineer is the actual ability of a
CT to replicate the primary current With the advent of microprocessor
technology.
• Researchers and designers have made significant progress in designing
microprocessor-based relays that are expected to provide fast and accurate fault
detection.
 Introduction
• Practically all electrical measurements and relaying decisions are derived from current
and voltage signals.
• Since relaying hardware works with smaller range of current (in amperes and not kA)
and voltage (volts and not kV), real life signals (feeder or transmission line currents)
and bus voltages have to be scaled to lower levels and then fed to the relays.
• This job is done by current and voltage transformers (CTs and VTs).
• CTs and VTs also electrically isolate the relaying system from the actual power
apparatus.
• The electrical isolation from the primary voltage also provides safety of both human
personnel and the equipment.
• Thus, CT and VTs are the sensors for the relay.
• CT and VT function like ‘ears' and the ‘eyes' of the protection system.
• They listen to and observe all happening in the   external world.
• Relay itself is the brain which processes these signals and issues decision commands
implemented by circuit breakers, alarms etc.
 current transformer

• A current transformer is defined as as an instrument transformer in which the

secondary current is substantially proportional to the primary current (under
normal conditions of operation) and differs in phase from it by an angle which is
approximately zero for an appropriate direction of the connections.
• This highlights the accuracy requirement of the current transformer but also
important is the isolating function, which means no matter what the system
voltage the secondary circuit need to be insulated only for a low voltage.
 current transformer

• The current transformer works on the principle of variable flux.

• In the ideal current transformer, secondary current would be
exactly equal (when multiplied by the turns ratio) and opposite
to the primary current.
• But, as in the voltage transformer, some of the primary current
or the primary ampere-turns are utilized for magnetizing the
core, thus leaving less than the actual primary ampere turns to
be transformed into the secondary ampere-turns.
• This naturally introduces an error in the transformation. The
error is classified into current ratio error and the phase error.
 Equivalent Circuit of CT
 

Equivalent circuit of a CT is not much different from that of a regular

transformer.
However, a fundamental difference is that while regular power transformers
are excited by a voltage source, a current transformer has current source
excitation.
Primary winding of the CT is connected in series with the transmission line.
The load on the secondary side is the relaying burden and the lead wire
resistance.
 Equivalent Circuit of CT

• Total load in ohms that is introduced by CT in series with the transmission line is insignificant
and hence, the connection of the CT does not alter current in the feeder or the power
apparatus at all.
• Hence from modeling perspectives it is reasonable to assume that CT primary is connected to
a current source.
• Therefore, the CT equivalent circuit will look as shown in fig below.
• The remaining steps in modeling are as follows: As impedance in series with the current
source can be neglected, we can neglect the primary winding resistance and   leakage
reactance in CT modeling.
• For the convenience in analysis, we can shift the magnetizing impedance from the primary
side to the secondary side of   the ideal transformer.
 Equivalent Circuit of CT

•After application of the above steps, the CT equivalent circuit is as shown in the fig
above.
•Note that the secondary winding resistance and leakage reactance is not neglected
as it will affect the performance of CT.
•The total impedance on the secondary side is the sum of relay burden, lead wire
resistance and leakage impedance of secondary winding.
•Therefore, the voltage developed in the secondary winding depends upon these
parameters directly.
•The secondary voltage developed by the CT has to be monitored because as per the
transformer emf equation, the flux level in the core depends upon it. The transformer
emf equation is given by,  

Where is the peak sinusoidal flux developed in the core

 Equivalent Circuit of CT

• If corresponding to this flux is above the knee point, it is more or less obvious
that the CT will saturate.
• During saturation, CT secondary winding cannot replicate the primary current
accurately and hence, the performance of the CT deteriorates.
• Thus, we conclude that in practice, while selecting a CT we should ascertain that it
should not saturate on the sinusoidal currents that it would be subjected to. Use of
numerical relays due to their very small burden vis-a-vis solid state and
electromechanical relays, improves the CT performance.
• CT is to be operated always in closed condition.
• If the CT is open circuited, all the current Ip/N, would flow through Xm.
• This will lead to the development of dangerously high level of voltage in secondary
winding which can even burn out the CT.
 Performance of CT
• The performance of a current transformer used in protective relaying is largely
dependent on the total burden or impedance in the secondary circuit of the current
transformer.
• The current transformer core flux density (and thus the amount of saturation) is
directly proportional to the voltage that the current transformer or secondary must
produce.
• So for a given amount of secondary current, the larger the burden impedance
becomes, the greater is the tendency of the current transformer to saturate.
• Ideally, protective relay systems would ignore current transformer saturation.
• However, that is usually not possible; so it is the task of the relay engineer to
minimize current transformer burden impedance.
• Manufacturers' publications give the burdens of individual relays, meters, and
other equipment.
• Adding the resistance of interconnecting leads and internal resistance of the
current transformer gives the total current transformer burden.
• In modern microprocessor relays with very small burdens, the total relay burden is
often dominated by the lead impedance or internal CT impedance.
 Knee Point Voltage of Current Transformer

•This is the significance of saturation level of a CT core mainly used for

protection purposes.
• The sinusoidal voltage of rated frequency applied to the secondary terminals
of Current Transformer, with other winding being open circuited, which when
increased by 10% cause the exiting current to increase 50%.
•The CT core is made of CRGO steel. It has its won saturation level.
•The EMF induced in the CT secondary windings is
E = 4.44φfT
2 2

• Where, f is the system frequency, φ is the maximum magnetic flux in Wb.

• T2 is the number of turns of the secondary winding.
• The flux in the core, is produced by excitation current I e.
• We have a non – liner relationship between excitation current and magnetizing
flux.
• After certain value of excitation current, flux will not further increase so rapidly
with increase in excitation current.
• This non-liner relation curve is also called B – H curve
• Again from the equation above, it is found that, secondary voltage of a Current
Transformer is directly proportional to flux φ. Hence one typical curve can be
drawn from this relation between secondary voltage and excitation current as
shown below,
Knee Point Voltage of Current Transformer

It is clear from the curve that, Linear relation

between V & Ie is maintained from point A & K.
The point ′A′ is known as ′Ankle Point′ and
point ′K′ is known as ′Knee Point′.
 Equivalent circuit of saturated CT
• One of the major problems faced by the protection systems engineer is the saturation of CT on
large ac currents and dc offset current present during the transient.
• When the CT is saturated, primary current source cannot be faithfully reflected to the
secondary side. In other words, we can open circuit the current source.
• Also, the magnetizing impedance falls down during saturation.
• Then the transformer behaves more like an air core device, with negligible coupling between
the primary and secondary winding.
• The high reluctance due to the air path implies that the magnetizing impedance (inductance)
falls down. The corresponding equivalent circuit is shown in fig below.
 Classification of CTs
• The CTs can be classified into following types:
• Measurement CTs
• Protection CTs  
• A measurement grade CT has much lower VA capacity than a protection grade CT.
• A measurement CT has to be accurate over its complete range e.g. from 5% to
125% of normal current.
• In other words, its magnetizing impedance at low current levels. (and hence low
flux levels) should be very high.
• Rather it is desirable the CT core to be saturated after this limit since the
unnecessary electrical stresses due to system over current can be prevented from
the metering instrument connected to the secondary of the CT as secondary current
does not go above a desired limit even primary current of the CT rises to a very
high value than its ratings.
• So accuracy within working range is main criteria of a CT used for metering
purpose.
• The degree of accuracy of a Metering CT is expressed by CT Accuracy Class or
simply Current Transformer Class or CT Class.
 Classification of CTs
• Note that due to non-linear nature of B-H curve, magnetizing impedance is not
constant but varies over the CT's operating range.
• It is not expected to give linear response (secondary current a scaled replica of the
primary current) during large fault currents.
• But in the case of protection, the CT may not have the accuracy level as good as
metering CT although it is desired not to be saturated during high fault current
passes through primary.
• So core of protection CT is so designed that it would not be saturated for long range
of currents.
• If saturation of the core comes at lower level of primary current the proper
reflection of primary current will not come to secondary, hence relays connected to
the secondary may not function properly and protection system losses its reliability.
• That is why the core of the protection CT is made such a way that saturation level
of that core must be high enough.
 Classification of CTs
• When a CT is used for both the purposes, it has to be of required accuracy class to satisfy
both accuracy conditions of measurement CTs and protection CTs.
• In other words, it has to be accurate for both very small and very large values of current.
• Typically, CT secondary rated current is standardized to 1A or 5A (more common).
• However, it would be unreasonable to assume that the linear response will be independent
of the net burden on the CT secondary.
• For simplicity, we refer to the net impedance on the secondary side (neglecting
magnetizing impedance) as the CT burden.
• It is quite obvious that the driving force required to drive the primary current replica
will increase as this burden increases.
• If this voltage exceeds the designer's set limits, then the CT core will saturate and hence
linear response will be lost.
• Hence, when we say that a CT will give linear response up to 20 times the rated current,
there is also an implicit constraint that the CT burden will be kept to a low value.
• In general, name-plate rating specifies a voltage limit on the secondary (e.g., 100 V) up to
which linear response is expected.
• If the CT burden causes this voltage to be exceeded, CT saturation results.
 Classification of CTs

• But still there is a limit as because, it is impossible to make one magnetic core
with infinitely high saturation level and secondly most important reason is that
although the protection care should have high saturation level but that must be
limited up to certain level otherwise total transformation of primary current
during huge fault may badly damage the protection relays.
• So it is clear from above explanation, rated accuracy limit primary current,
should not be so less, that it will not at all help the relays to be operated on the
other hand this value must not be so high that it can damage the relays.
• for a protection grade CT, linear response is expected up to 20 times the rated
current.
• Its performance has to be accurate in the range of normal currents and up to
fault currents.
• Specifically, for protection grade CT's magnetizing impedance should be
maintained to a large value in the range of the currents of the order of fault
currents.
 Classification of CTs

• Suppose you have one CT with current ratio 400/1A and its protection core is
situated at 500A.
• If the primary current of the CT becomes 1000A the secondary current will still be
1.25A as because the secondary current will not increase after 1.25A because of
saturation.
• If actuating current of the relay connected the secondary circuit of the CT is 1.5A,
it will not be operated at all even fault level of the power circuit is 1000A.
• The degree of accuracy of a Protection CT may not be as fine as Metering CT but it
is also expressed by CT Accuracy Class or simply Current Transformer Class or CT
Class as in the case of Metering Current Transformer but in little bit different
manner.
 Instrument Security Factor or ISF of Current Transformer

• Instrument Security Factor is the ratio of Instrument Limit Primary Current to

the rated Primary Current.
• Instrument Limit Current of a metering Current Transformer is the maximum value
of primary current beyond which Current Transformer core becomes saturated.
• Instrument Security Factor of CT is the significant factor for choosing the metering
Instruments which to be connected to the secondary of the CT. Security or Safety of
the measuring unit is better, if ISF is low.
• Suppose one Current Transformer has rating 100/1A and ISF is 1.5 and another
Current Transformer has same rating with ISF 2.
• That means, in first CT, the metering core would be saturated at 1.5X100 or 150 A,
whereas is second CT, core will be saturated at 2X100 or 200A.
• That means whatever may be the primary current of both CTs, secondary current
will not increase further after 150 & 200A of primary current of the CTs
respectively.
• Hence maximum secondary current of the CTs would be 1.5 & 2.0 A.
Instrument Security Factor or ISF of Current Transformer

• As the maximum electric current can flow through the instrument connected to the
first CT is 1.5A which is less than the maximum value of electric current can flow
through the instrument connected to the second CT i.e. 2A.
• Hence security or safety of the instruments of first CT is better than later.
• Another significance of ISF is during huge electrical fault, the short circuit current,
flows through primary of the CT does not affect destructively, the measuring
instrument attached to it as because, the secondary current of the CT will not rise
above the value of rated secondary current multiplied by ISF

• Protection class CTs are designed to work in the linear range, with minimal errors
and minimal waveform distortion, only up to 20 times the rated nominal current
with the burden as defined by the relay class (saturation voltage) of the CT per
IEEE Std. C57.13.
 Classification of CTs
• ANSI / IEEE classification  
• ANSI/IEEE standards classify CTs into two
types:
• Class T CT
• Class C CT
 Class T CTs
• Typically, a class T CT is a wound type CT with one or more primary turns wound on a core.
• It is associated with high leakage flux in the core.
• Because of this, the only way to determine it's performance is by test.
• In other words, standardized performance curves cannot be used with this types of CTs.

•Figure shows one such experimentally calibrated

curve for a CT.
•The letter ‘B' indicates the burden in ohms to which
the CT is subjected.
•It is seen that when burden is less than say 0.1 ohms,
CT meets the linear performance criterion.
•However, as the burden increases to 0.5 ohms, the
corresponding linearity criteria is not met till the end.
•At 4 ohms burden, there is significant deviation from
the linear response.
•A general rule of thumb is that, one should try to
keep the CT burden as low as possible.
 Ratio Error:
• CT performance is usually gauged from the ratio error.
• The ratio error is the percentage deviation in the current magnitude in the secondary from the
desired value.
• In other words, if the current measured in the secondary is I s, true or actual value is Ip/N,
where N is nominal ratio (e.g. N for a 100:5 CT is 20) and Ip is the primary current then
• ratio error is given by

• When the CT is not saturated ratio error is a consequence of

magnetizing current IE since

Therefore, % ratio error is equal to

 Ratio Error:
• When the CT is saturated, coupling between primary and secondary is reduced.
• Hence large ratio errors are expected in saturation.
• The current in the secondary is also phase shifted.
• For measurement grade CTs, there are strict performance requirements on phase
angle errors also.
• Error in phase angle measurement affects power factor calculation and ultimately
real and reactive power measurements.
• It is expected that the ratio error for protection grade CTs will be maintained within
• The “knee” or effective point of saturation is refined by the ANSI/IEEE standards
as the intersection of the curve with a 45 degree tangent line and for
IEC(international electrochemical commission) defines the knee as the intersection
of straight lines extended from the unsaturated and saturated parts of the exciting
curve. The IEC knee is at a higher voltage than the ANSI knee.
Class C CT fig.5.7
• Letter designation 'C' indicates that the leakage flux is negligible.
• Class C CTs are the more accurate bar type CTs.
• In such CTs, the leakage flux from the core is kept very small.
• For such CTs, the performance can be evaluated from the standard exciting curves.
• Also, the ratio error is maintained within for standard operating conditions.
• For such CTs, voltage rating on the secondary is specified up to which linear response is
guaranteed.
• For example, a class C CT specification could be as follows: 200:5 C 100.
• The labeling scheme indicates that we are dealing with a 200:5 class C CT which will
provide linear response up to 20 times rated current provided the burden on the
secondary is kept below ohm. Similarly, a corresponding class T CT
may be labeled as 200:5 T 100.
• For class C CTs, standard chart for versus excitation current on the secondary side is
available.
• This provides the protection engineer data to do more exact calculations (refer fig). e.g.,
in determining relaying sensitivity.
 Example 1:
•
A , C400 CT with excitation curves shown on above fig, is connected to a 2.0 burden. Based
on the accuracy classification, what is the maximum symmetrical fault current that may be
applied to this CT without exceeding a 10% ratio error?

Answer:
CT ratio = 1200/5
Secondary resistance = 0.61
Relay burden = 2
For 20 times rated secondary current, i.e., 100A
Secondary voltage = 100 x (2 + 0.61) = 261 Volts which is less than knee point of the CT.
• Since this voltage is less than 400V, from electrical perspective, linearity will not be lost at
even higher currents.
• Approximate limit on secondary current is given by .
• Hence maximum symmetrical fault current = 36720A.
 Example 2:
• A ,1200/5 C400 CT is connected on the 1000/5 tap. What is the maximum secondary burden
that can be used and we can maintain rated accuracy at 20 times rated symmetrical secondary
current?
The secondary voltage corresponding to the tap 1000/5,

=333 V

333 = 100(0.51+RB)

Secondary burden = 3.33 - 0.51 = 2.72

Example 3:
Example 4:
Example 5:
Example 6:
 Exciting Current

• In an ideal current transformer, the primary ampere turns are equal to

• the secondary ampere turns.
• However, every core material requires some energy to produce the magnetic flux
which induces the secondary voltage necessary to deliver the secondary current.
• Thus, in an actual current transformer, the secondary ampere turns are equal to the
primary ampere turns minus the exciting ampere turns. When the current
transformer core is unsaturated, the error due to
• exciting current is normally negligible.
• When the voltage is above the knee of the excitation curve, the current
transformer is said to be operating in its saturated region where the exciting
current is no longer negligible.
• Therefore, the ratio error of the current transformer becomes much greater
beyond the knee
 Remanence
• Remanent flux can be set up in the core of a current transformer under
operating or test conditions.
• During operating conditions, remanent flux can be left in the core when the
primary current is interrupted while the flux density in the core of the
transformer is high.
• This may occur when clearing fault current.
• Testing, such as resistance or continuity measurements, may also leave
remanence.
• The remanent flux in the core depends on many factors.
• The most important ones are the magnitude of primary current, the impedance
of the secondary circuit and the amplitude and time constant of any offset
transient.
 Remanence
• Since the impedance of the secondary circuit is generally fixed, the magnitude of
remanent flux is governed by the magnitude of the symmetrical component of
• the primary current and the magnitude of the offset transient prior to the primary
current interruption.
• Maximum remanent flux can be obtained under conditions whereby the primary
current is interrupted while the transformer is in a saturated state.
• When the current transformer is next energized, the flux changes required will start
from the remanent value.
• If the required change is in the direction to add to the remanent flux, a large part of
the cycle may find the current transformer saturated.
• When this occurs, much of the primary current is required for excitation and
secondary output is significantly reduced and distorted on alternate halfcycles.
• The performance of both C and T class transformers is influenced by this remanence
or residual magnetism.
• Relay action could be slow or even incorrect.
 Remanence
• The remanence can be corrected by demagnetizing the current
transformer.
• This is accomplished by applying a suitable variable alternating
voltage to the secondary, with initial magnitude sufficient to force the
flux density above the saturation point, and then decreasing the applied
voltage slowly and continuously to zero.
• If there is any reason to suspect that a current transformer has been
subjected recently to heavy currents, possibly involving a large DC
component, it should be demagnetized before being used for any test
requiring accurate current measurement.
 CT Saturation and DC Offset Current
• MODERN protective devices depend the phasors of the voltage and current signals.
• Any fault-induced dc offset must be removed from the current signal to estimate
the current phasor accurately.
• Since a dc offset is a nonperiodic signal whose spectrum covers all frequencies, the
presence of such a dc offset may result in a phasor estimation error of almost 20%,
depending on the algorithm used.
• It is well known that the saturation of a current transformer (CT) also has an
adverse influence on the estimation of the current phasor.
• Since dc offset itself is one of main causes of CT saturation, dc offset, and CT
saturation should be considered together when estimating the phasor of a current
signal.
CT Saturation and DC Offset Current
• Saturation that occurs primarily as a result of the dc offset component is sometimes
referred to as dc saturation.
 Introduction to VT
Voltage Transformers

•Many relaying applications like distance relays, directional over current

relays require measurement of voltages at a bus.
• This task is done by a voltage transformer (VT).
•The equivalent circuit of a VT is similar to that of a conventional
transformer.
•Typically, the secondary voltage of the VT is standardized to 110 V
(ac).
•Hence, as the primary voltage increases, the turns ratio N 1:N2 increases
and transformer becomes bulky.
 CCVT

• To cut down the VT size and cost, a capacitance potential divider is used (fig 8.2).
• Thus, a reduced voltage is fed to primary of the transformer.
• This reduces the size of VT.
• This leads to development of coupling capacitor voltage transformers (CCVT).  

  
 CCVT

• It is now obvious that Zth due to the capacitance divider, affects the voltage
received by the relay.
• To achieve high level of accuracy, it is therefore necessary to compensate for this
voltage drop by connecting a tuning inductor.
• Under line fault conditions, when the voltage drops and there is no threat of
exceeding the knee-point of the magnetizing characteristic of the step-down
transformer, a CVT can be represented by the equivalent linear circuit as shown in
Figure.
• A CVT consists of the following components:
• Coupling capacitors (C1 and C2)
• Compensating reactor (L )
• Step-down transformer
• Ferro resonance-suppression circuit

• The coupling capacitors of the CVT function as a voltage divider to step down the
line voltage to an intermediate-Ievel voltage, typically 5 to 15 kV.
 CCVT

• The capacitor divider is made up of many series connected capacitor elements,

connected line to ground.
• A tap is brought out at an appropriate voltage level carefully coordinated with the
intermediate transformer to provide the required output voltages.
• The capacitor elements on the high voltage side of the tap are called C1 and the
capacitor elements on the low voltage side of the tap are called C2.
• To provide the reduced level tap voltage there are many more C1 capacitor
elements than C2 capacitor elements.
• The capacitor elements are housed in hollow porcelain or composite insulators
filled with an impregnating fluid.
CCVT
CVT schematic
 Role of Tuning Reactor
• The compensating reactor cancels the coupling capacitor reactance at the system
frequency.
• This reactance cancellation prevents any phase shift between the primary and
secondary voltages at the system frequency.
• The tuning inductor‘s value is so chosen that it compensates for the ‘net C' at
power frequency (50Hz in India).
• The phasor diagram across resistive load, is as shown in fig 8. 4
• From the corresponding equivalent circuit, it is apparent that,
• If

then voltage drop across C is neutralized and the relay sees the actual voltage to be
measured. (See fig 8.5).

The step-down transformer further reduces the intermediate-level voltage to the

nominal relaying voltage, typically 115/√3 volts.
 Role of Tuning Reactor
• Ferroresonance oscillations may take place if the circuit capacitances resonate with
the iron core nonlinear inductance.
• These oscillations cause undesired information transferred to the relays and
measuring instruments.
• Therefore, a ferroresonance suppression circuit (FSC) is normally included in one
of the CCVT windings.
• Circuits tuned at power frequency (Lin parallel with C) and a resistance to ground
have been often used as ferrore-sonance suppression circuits because they damp out
transient oscillations and require small amount of energy during steady-state.
• The inductance L is chosen to avoid phase shifts between v input and v output at
power frequency.
• However, small errors may occur due to the exciting current and the CCVT burden
Zb
• CVTs are typically single-phase devices used for measuring voltages in excess of
one hundred kilovolts where the use of wound primary voltage transformers would
be uneconomical.
• In practice, capacitor C1 is often constructed as a stack of smaller capacitors
connected in series. This provides a large voltage drop across C 1 and a relatively
small voltage drop across C2.
 CCVT in Power Line Communication
• CCVT is also an economical choice when the transmission line is used for power line
communication.
• The capacitance potential divider also serves the dual purpose of providing a shunt path to
high frequency signal used in power line carrier communication.
• High frequency RF signals can be coupled to the power line for communication. Filtering of
this RF signal is carried out by a parallel R-L-C circuit which is also known as tuning pack.
• At high frequency, the capacitive shunt impedance is very small and hence these signals can
be tapped by the potential divider.
• To block the path to ground for the RF signal, a small drainage reactor is connected in series
with the capacitance divider.
• Normally, the frequency range of this RF signal is 50 kHz-400 kHz. At this frequency the
drainage reactor offers a high impedance block to the RF signal; while for power frequency
(50 Hz) it appears as a path to ground.
• The high inductance of the reactor and the transformer provides a high impedance path for
the RF signal. Hence it prevents any leakage of RF signal into the transformer output at
50Hz.
CCVT in Power Line Communication
 Ferro Resonance Problem in CCVT
• The compensating reactor and step-down transformer have iron cores.
• Besides introducing copper and core losses, the compensating reactor and step-
down transformer also produce Ferro resonance due to the nonlinearity of the iron
cores.
• CVT manufacturers recognize this ferro resonance phenomenon and include a
Ferro resonance-suppression circuit.
• This circuit is normally used on the secondary of the step-down transformer.
• This circuit is required to avoid dangerous and destructive overvoltages caused by
ferro resonance.
• Unfortunately, it can aggravate CCVT transients.
• Whether or not this suppression circuit aggravates the CVT transient depends upon
the suppression circuit design.
 Transient Response of CCVT

• When a fault suddenly reduces the line voltage, the CVT secondary output does not
instantaneously represent the primary voltage.
• This is because the energy storage elements, such as coupling capacitors and the
compensating reactor, cannot instantaneously change their charge or flux.
• These energy storage elements cause the CVT transients.
• Because these elements take time to change their stored energy , they introduce a transient to
the CVT output following a significant input voltage change.

• As can be seen in the fig 8.5, CCVT equivalent circuit is a R-L-C circuit.
• If transformer is considered ideal, it can be described by integro differential equation of the
type,
1 t di
v(t )  Ri 
Ceq 

idt  L
dt
•
• The corresponding differential equation is given by
 Transient Response of CCVT

•
Transient Response of CCVT
 Transient Response of CCVT
CVT transients differ depending on the fault point-on-wave (POW) initiation.
The CVT transients for faults occurring at voltage peaks and voltage zeros are quite distinctive
and different.
Two CVT transients for zero-crossing and peak POW fault initiations are shown in the fig.. For
comparison, the ideal CVT voltage output (ratio voltage) is shown in each figure.
Figure 8.7 shows a CVT transient with a fault occurring at a voltage zero.
Also, notice that the CVT output does not follow the ideal output until 1.75 cycles after fault
inception.
Figure 8.8 shows the CVT response to the same fault occurring at a voltage peak. Again, the
CVT output does not follow the ideal output. The CVT transient for this case lasts about 1.25
cycles.
 Transient Response of CCVT

• Each CVT component contributes to the CVT transient response.

• For example, the turns ratio of the step-down transformer dictates how well a CVT
isolates its burden from the dividing capacitors C1and C2.
• The higher the transformer ratio, the less effect the CVT burden has on these
capacitors.
• The different loading on the CVT coupling capacitors due to different transformer
ratios changes the shape and duration of CVT transients.

• The high capacitance value in a CVT decreases the CVT transient in magnitude.
 Transient Response of CCVT
• CVTs provide a cost-efficient way of obtaining secondary voltages for EHV systems.
• They create however, certain problems for distance relays.
• During line faults, when the primary voltage collapses and the energy stored in the stack
capacitors and the tuning reactor of a CVT needs to be dissipated, the CVT generates sever
transients that affect the performance of Protective relays.
• The CVT caused transients are of significant magnitude and comparatively long duration.
• This becomes particularly important for large Source Impedance Ratios (SIR — the ratio of
the system equivalent impedance and the relay reach impedance) when the fault loop
voltage can be as low as a few percent of the nominal voltage for faults at the relay reach
point.
• Such a small signal is buried beneath the CVT transient making it extremely difficult to
distinguish quickly between faults at the reach point and faults within the protection zone.
• Electromechanical relays can cope with unfavourable CVT transients due to their natural
mechanical inertia at the expense of slower operation.
• Digital relays are designed for high-speed tripping and therefore they face certain CVT
related problems.
• CVT transients can affect both the transient overreach (a relay operates during faults
located out of its set reach) and the speed of operation (slow tripping for high SIRs) and
directionality.
 Classification of CCVTs

•   CCVTs can be classified into following two types:

• Class 1
• Class 2  
• Table 8.1 shows the maximum limit for the ratio and phase angle errors.
• It can be seen that errors of Class 2 type are double than that of class 1 type.
 INCLINATION OF THE LOAD LINE

• By an overcompensation,
it is possible to give the CVT an inductive characteristic on the secondary side, in the
same way as for an inductive voltage transformer.
 FREQUENCY DEPENDENCE OF A CVT

• The fundamental function of the CVT is resonance between the capacitive and
inductive reactance at rated frequency.
• It can therefore not be expected that the CVT will have the same accuracy for
frequencies deviating from the rated.
• The standards, IEC 60044-5, specifies that for a metering class the accuracy shall
be maintained for a frequency variation between 99-101% of rated frequency and
for protection class between 96-102%.
• The sensitivity for frequency variations is dependent on the equivalent capacitance
and the intermediate voltage.
• High values give a lower sensitivity and smaller variations.
• A purely resistive burden will give error variation only for phase displacement and
an inductive burden gives variation both in ratio and in phase.
 ERROR VARIATION FOR TEMPERATURE CHANGES

• The temperature characteristic of a CVT is rather complex and only a few factors
influencing the errors of a CVT will be dealt with here.
• The capacitance of the CVD changes by temperature.
• The size of the change depends on the type of dielectric used in the capacitor
elements.
• The relation between capacitance and temperature can be written:
• Where α Temperature coefficient for the capacitor dielectri,c ∆T Temperature change
• The variation of capacitance means two different kinds of temperature dependence.
• If the two capacitors C1 and C2 in the voltage divider can get different temperature
or if they, due to design, have different values of α, the voltage ratio of the CVT
changes by temperature.
• This will have an influence on the ratio error
• It is therefore essential that the design is such that all capacitor elements have the
same dielectric and have the same operating conditions.
• CVD’s having C1 and C2 enclosed in the same porcelain have shown very good
temperature stability.
 ERROR VARIATION FOR TEMPERATURE CHANGES

• This will have an influence on the ratio error

• It is therefore essential that the design is such that all capacitor elements have the same
dielectric and have the same operating conditions.
• CVD’s having C1 and C2 enclosed in the same porcelain have shown very good
temperature stability.

• Another temperature dependence is caused by the changes of the capacitive reactance:

• This temperature dependence influences the tuning of the CVT and gives additional
errors of the same kind as for frequency variations and is proportional to the connected
burden.
• Low temperature coefficient is essential to keep these variations small.
• A third remaining factor influencing the errors, is the change of winding resistance
• in the tuning inductor due to temperature variations.
 LEAKAGE CURRENTS AND STRAY CAPACITANCE

• The capacitor voltage divider is normally built up from a number of series

connected porcelain sections.
• Pollution on the external surface of the porcelains will be equivalent to a parallel
resistance to the capacitor elements and an uneven distribution of pollution between
sections can therefore be expected to have an influence on the accuracy.
• It can though be shown that the higher capacitance in the divider, the smaller
influence on accuracy.
• Measurements on CVTs in dry, wet and polluted conditions have shown that the
influence on ratio and phase errors is very small and can be neglected for CVTs
having a high capacitance.
• In a substation where there is stray capacitance to other objects an influence on
accuracy can be suspected.
• A high capacitance is advantageous in this respect and practical experience show
that this is not a problem in outdoor substations.
 COUPLING-CAPACITOR INSULATION COORDINATION
• The voltage rating of a coupling capacitor that is used with protective relaying
should be such that its insulation will withstand the flashover voltage of the circuit
at the point where the capacitor is connected.
• The flashover voltage of the circuit at the capacitor location will depend not only
on the line insulation but also on the insulation of other terminal equipment such as
circuit breakers, transformers, and lightning arresters.
• However, there may be occasions when these other terminal equipments may be
disconnected from the line, and the capacitor will then be left alone at the end of
the line without benefit of the protection that any other equipment might provide.
• For example, a disconnect may be opened between a breaker and the capacitor, or a
breaker may be opened between a transformer or an arrester and the capacitor.
• If such can happen, the capacitor must be able to withstand the voltage that will
dash over the line at the point where the capacitor is connected.
• Some lines are overinsulated, either because they are subjected to unusual insulator
contamination or because they are insulated for a future higher voltage than the
present operating value.
• In any event, the capacitor should withstand the actual line flashover voltage
unless there is other equipment permanently connected to the line that will hold the
voltage down to a lower value.
 COUPLING-CAPACITOR INSULATION COORDINATION

• At altitudes above 3300 feet, the flashover value of air-insulated equipment has
decreased appreciably. To compensate for this decrease, additional insulation may
be provided for the line and for the other terminal equipment.
• This may require the next higher standard voltage rating for the coupling capacitor,
and it is the practice to specify the next higher rating if the altitude is known to be
over 3300 feet.
Standard Withstand Test Voltages for Coupling Capacitors
 What is a non-conventional instrument transformer

• Today a number of different sensors and technologies are used which are gathered
under the general umbrella of non-conventional instrument transformers.
• They range from traditional cores and dividers having an output at lower levels
than present day standards, via air core coils to optical units employing electro- or
magneto optical effects.
• Each technology has its advantages and disadvantages.
• The future will probably show that each different technology will be used in the
areas where their specific advantages are useful.
• Another typical feature of modern non-conventional transformers is that the
measured signal in many products is transmitted through an optical fibre from the
high potential level to the instrumentation potential in the substation.
• This significantly reduces the insulation problem associated with traditional
transformers.
•ABB currently have several commercial concepts, DOIT (Digital
Optical Instrument Transformers ), MOCT and FOCS.
•These are potentially applicable to digital metering and protection
when the new IEC 61850 is introduced.
•Currently, the DOIT is only used in HVDC applications.
•The FOCS system are currently available for industrial DC
applications.
•AC applications for metering and protection are being developed.
 OPTICAL INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER

• In recent years, electric utilities have been evaluating optical sensors to measure current and
voltage.
• These devices are proving their value, especially in applications where accurate measurement
over wider dynamic range, ability to retrofit, and improved safety are of main concern.
• They are well suited for the advanced functionality of leading-edge protective relays and
meters and for compatibility with digital communications in modern substations.
• The NxtPhase NXVCT optical voltage and current sensor, for example, combines voltage
and current sensing (protection and metering) in a single instrument for each of several volt-
age classes over the range from 115kV to 765kV.
• Primary advantages of this optical technology over conventional inductive and capacitive
measurement transformers include:
• High accuracy (exceeds IEC Class 0.2 and IEEE Class 0.3 accuracy requirements)
• Wide dynamic range
• High bandwidth
 OPTICAL INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER
• Reduced size and weight
• Safe and environmentally friendly (avoids oil or SF6)
• Low maintenance
• Immunity against electromagnetic interferences (EMI);
• Electrical isolation (the optical sensors are made of dielectric materials);
• Possibility for measuring AC and DC;
• Absence of saturation effects;
• Low power consumption;
• relatively low cost
• During fault conditions a well-known phenomenon called “saturation” occurs in
conventional CTs; the iron core in a transformer “saturates” when high fault
currents induce a large magnetic field.
• In effect, the transformer can no longer accurately represent the primary current in
the current transformer secondary.
• Utilities must therefore select oversized CT ratios in order to avoid false relay
operation.
 OPTICAL INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER
• An optical CT does not face the same saturation challenges. It uses light travelling
through glass (an optical fibre in the case of the NXCT) to measure the magnetic
field around a current-carrying conductor, which gives a measure of the current
flowing in the conductor.
• If configured correctly, the optical voltage and current sensor has the ability to
measure fault currents exceeding 400 kA peak.
• Additionally, using advanced techniques, both AC and DC currents can be
measured accurately throughout this range.
• Furthermore they are usually connected to optical fibers that have large
communication bandwidths, and due to their very low absorption loss allow remote
detection, high multiplexing capability and data transmission over long distances.
• Also, optical current sensors measure the magnetic field generated by the electric
current rather than the current itself, thus avoiding the electric hazards that the high
voltage measurements imply.
 Digital Optical Instrument Transformers
• DOIT, Digital Optical Instrument Transformers are used for measurement of
current and voltage in power systems.
• Applications are for protection, metering, control and power quality supervision.
• The Instrument transformers combine traditional measuring techniques with digital
optical signal transmission, allowing a purely non-conducting connection between
the transducer part in the switchyard and the interface part in the control room.
 Operating Principles of DOCT

• The DOCT, Digital Optical Current Transformer consists of a transducer in the

primary circuit connected by an optical fiber to the interface unit in the control
room.
• In the transducer, the current value is measured with a magnetic current
transformer, a shunt or a Rogowski coil. After sampling and conversion into digital
form by the DOIT electronics, the current value is transmitted as an optical signal in
the fiber to the interface in the control room.
• Power to supply the DOIT electronics is simultaneously transmitted as laser light
from the interface to the transducer, using the same or a separate optical fiber.
• In the DOVT, Digital Optical Voltage Transformer a capacitive or resistive voltage
divider is used to measure the voltage.
• The values are sampled and transmitted to the interface unit in the control room
using identical opto-electronics as in the DOCT.
• The transfer function is better than with conventional voltage transformers and the
risk of ferro resonance is eliminated.
 optical sensors

• Conventional high DC current transformers utilize the Hall effect to measure the magnetic field
around the current carrying bus bars.
• Over the years Hall effect based DC current transformers have become very accurate and reliable.
• High precision transducers, working with magnetic flux compensation, are complex systems
incorporating a magnetic core around the current-carrying bus bars, a number of Hall elements
in air gaps of the core, solenoids to nullify the primary magnetic field in the core and at the Hall
elements, and high gain current amplifiers to generate the solenoid currents.
• However, they are rather complex systems and demand intricate installation and commissioning
procedures.
• Often an analysis of the magnetic field distribution is necessary in order to place the transducer
head such that errors due to asymmetries in the field and cross-talk from neighbour currents are
minimized.
• Conventional systems weigh up to 2000 kg and consume up to 10 kW of power.
• Special care must be taken to avoid erroneous output due to asymmetric field distributions and
disturbances from neighbor currents or bus bar corners.
 optical sensors

• In the fiber-optic current sensor a simple loop of optical fiber around the bus
bar replaces the sophisticated head of the conventional transformer.
• The sensor perfectly integrates the magnetic field along the closed path
described by the sensing fiber.
• As a result, the signal is independent of the particular magnetic field
distribution and only determined by the enclosed current.
• All currents outside the fiber loop are of no influence.
• Sensor placement is therefore uncritical.
• The simplicity of the system reduces the time required for installation and
commissioning to a few hours.
• The sensor overcomes the drawbacks of the classical transducers and
offers superior performance and functionality.
 optical sensors
• There are basically two linear effects by which the magnetic field can be measured
by optical sensors: magneto-optic effect (or Faraday effect) and magnetic force (or
Lorentz force).
• The principle of magneto-optic effects is based on the interaction between magnetic
field and the phenomenon of light refraction and reflection in transparent medium
and on its surface .
• Three basic magneto optic effects are know
• Cotton-Mouton effect,
• Kerr surface effect ,
• Faraday effect.
• The most important for current sensor application is Faraday magneto-optic effect.
• Faraday effect causes the electromagnetic wave polarization rotation due to the
magnetic field intensity in transparent material.
 Faraday effect
• The sensor makes use of the Faraday effect in the fiber.
• The Faraday effect is the phenomenon that in a medium such as glass right and left
circularly polarized light waves travel at different speeds if a magnetic field is
applied along the propagation direction .
• As a result the waves accumulate a path difference δL or equivalently a phase
difference δΦf = 2 V L H.
• Here, V is a material constant (Verdet constant), L the length of the rod, and H the
magnetic field.
 Faraday effect
• The angle of rotation of linearly polarized light is proportional to the strength of the magnetic
field and the cosine of the angle between the field and the propagation direction of the light
wave.
• This rotation can be expressed mathematically by:
•  where, V is the material Verdet constant, which is both dispersive and temperature-dependent.
• B is the magnetic flux density vector .
• dl is the differential vector along the direction of propagation.
• This effect is called the Faraday effect or linear magneto-optic effect and can be used to build
optical current sensors.
• Fig. below illustrates the polarization rotation due to a parallel external magnetic field on a
magneto-optical material, such as, glass.

Faraday effect in linearly polarized light

• A fiber gyroscope module is employed for interrogation.
• The two forward propagating light waves, emerging with parallel linear polarizations from the lithium
niobate phase modulator of the gyro module (grey box), are combined to orthogonal waves in a polarization
maintaining fibre coupler.
• The coupler has a 90°-offset in the fibre orientation at the splice of one of its two entrance leads.
• Two light waves with orthogonal linear polarizations travel from the optoelectronics module, which
includes a semiconductor light source, via an interconnecting fiber to the single-ended sensing fiber.
• The sensing fiber forms an integer number of loops, N, around the bus bar.
• A single loop is commonly sufficient for high dc currents.
• At the entrance of the sensing fiber a fiber-optic phase retarder converts the orthogonal linear waves into
left and right circularly polarized light.
• .
• A short section of elliptical-core fiber acts as a quarterwave retarder.
• The circular waves travel through the coil of sensing fiber.
• At the coil end the light waves are reflected and then retrace the optical path with swapped polarizations.
• The returning orthogonal waves are split at the coupler into the upper and lower branches of the
• circuit.
• The waves polarized parallel to the transmission direction of the polarizing modulator, having traveled along reciprocal
paths (vertical polarizations in Fig.), are brought to interference.
Fibre-optic current sensor.
• The polarization directions of the returning waves are swapped with respect to the forward
propagating waves due to the reflection.
• The waves with nonreciprocal paths (horizontal polarizations) are blocked.
• In addition, these waves are prevented from interference by means of the delay loop in the lower
branch.
• Since the circular waves travel at somewhat different speeds through the sensing fiber if a dc
current, I, is flowing.
• The two returning light waves have accumulated a phase difference given by δΦf = 4 VNI. The
phase difference is proportional to the line integral of the magnetic field along the sensing fiber
and is therefore a direct measure for the current.
• The returning waves are brought to interference in the optoelectronics module.
• The signal processor then converts the optical phase difference into a digital signal.
• A particular advantage of operating the sensing coil in reflection is, besides the simplicity of the
arrangement, the fact that the sensor signal is largely immune to mechanical perturbations such
as shock and vibration.
• While the non-reciprocal Faraday optical phase shifts double on the ways forward and
backward, phase shifts caused by mechanical disturbances are reciprocal and cancel each other.
• The minimum detectable optical phase shift is a few micro rad/(Hz)1/2.
• With a single loop of fiber a phase shift of 5 micro rad corresponds to a current of about
1A.
• The maximum detectable phase shift is 2 Pi rad and corresponds to a current of 600 kA.
• The bare sensing fibre (diameter 80 mm) resides in a thin capillary of fused silica (inner
diameter 530 mm, inset in Fig.).
• The capillary protects the fibre from external stress.
• The capillary contains a lubricant to avoid internal friction during handling and is
embedded in a thin strip of fibre- reinforced epoxy.
• The strip serves as a robust protection of the capillary and, with the aid of appropriate
markers, allows one to perfectly and reproducibly close the fibre coil, that is to install the
coil such that the retarder and reflector coincide resulting in a perfect closed-loop
integration of the magnetic field.
• The packaged sensing fibre is accommodated in a modular housing, consisting of
segments of fibre reinforced epoxy. The housing is mounted to the current-carrying bus
bars.
Sensor heads for different rated currents (top) and electronics (bottom). The outer

diameter of the smallest head is about 90 cm .

 Sensor head

The sensor head is connected to the sensor electronics via a glass fiber cable.

Example of FOCS measuring system for DC

The FOCS sensor head housing is modular

and lightweight.

FOCS maintains high accuracy even in strongly

inhomogeneous magnetic fields.
 Comparison of hall effect and fiber-optic DC
current transformers
• Hall effect and optical current transformers are both highly accurate.
• However, the optical sensor offers a number of important advantages
• The high accuracy of the optical sensor is maintained over a very wide operating range of currents.
• The perfect line integration of the magnetic field eliminates erroneous output in case of angled
conductor arrangements, inhomogeneous magnetic fields, and strong neighbor currents.
• The sensor is able to handle bi-directional currents and magnetic fields.
• A local reversal in the field direction, caused by high neighbor currents, does not lead to errors.
• Local field enhancements will not cause saturation.
• The good field integration results in more flexibility in the choice of the sensor placement. Even a
small space on the busbar is sufficient to install the sensor.
• The large bandwidth enables the detection of current ripple and recording of transients.
• The complexity of the sensor head and thus the risk of faults are significantly reduced.
• The sensor electronics is galvanically isolated from the sensor head.
• Both, digital and analog outputs are available to perfectly fit into today’s de-centralized industrial
automation technologies.
 Moct - Magneto-optic Current Transducer

• The MOCT system satisfies current sensing needs for revenue metering or protective
relaying in a wide variety of applications. (ABB make).
• The Magneto-Optic Current Transformer for Protection (MOCT-P) is a passive optical
current transducer which uses light to accurately measure current on high voltage
systems.
• The MOCT-P system is suitable for outdoor application and has a continuous current
rating up to 3150 A with an accuracy limit factor of 40 x.
• It meets the protection class accuracy 5TPE, according to IEC 60044-8.
• The optical design enables accurate reproduction of fully offset fault currents with
decaying d.c. component without saturation or other source of distortion.
• The MOCT-P system provides a 200 mV voltage output for use with protective relays.
• Three phases of MOCT-P sensors mounted on polymer insulator columns with
predominated fiber optic cable in the insulator.
• Fiber optic cables for transmission of the light signals between the optical sensors
and the MOCT-P electronic module.
• The MOCT is a current measuring device based on the magneto-optical Faraday
• effect.
• This effect explains the rotation of the plane of polarization of a linear beam of
light in certain materials that become optically active under the presence of a
magnetic field.
• If the magnetic field and light propagation directions coincide, the angle of
rotation (q) is proportional to the magnetic flux density (B), the length of the path
(l) and a constant named Verdet constant (V), which is a property of the material.
• In the equation below I is the current flowing through the conductor and m is the
permeability of the material.
 MOCT optical sensor system
• Light is emitted by an LED and transmitted through multi mode optical fiber to the rotator
installed at high voltage.
• The light is polarized as it enters the sensor. It then travels around the conductor inserted
through the opening on the rotator and exits through an analyzer.
• The analyzer is oriented 45degree with respect to the polarizer.
• Subsequently, the light is transmitted back through another optical fiber to the electronic
module where it is converted into an electric signal by a photodiode.
• The signal processing module and precision amplifier circuit provide an analog 1.0 A output
current which is proportional to the primary current flowing through the conductor.
 Voltage measurement and the Pockels effect

• The voltage sensor operates using a variation of the linear, longitudinal mode
electro-optic Pockels effect referred to as the Quadrature Pockels cell.
• This effect occurs in crystalline materials that exhibit induced birefringence under
applied electric field.
• Linearly polarized light propagating the crystal parallel to the electric field will
experience phase retardation between its components in the slow and fast axis.
• The phase retardation is due to the difference in the velocity of propagation of the
light and is related to different refractive indices between these axes.
• The voltage sensor consists of a crystal placed between high voltage and ground.
• The light emitted by a source is transmitted through multi mode optical fiber to the
sensor.
• The beam of light is polarized as it enters the sensor, then it propagates through the
crystal in the direction of the electric field.
• The sensor depicted in Figure below includes a reflective prism on the high-voltage
side of the crystal.
• This prism reflects the light back towards the grounded side.
• Therefore, all of the connections are on the ground side.
• After exiting the sensor, the light is split into two quadrature components, (phase
shifted 90), which are transmitted back to the electronic module where they are
converted into electric signals.
• These two signals provide sufficient information to reconstruct the waveform and
magnitude of the voltage across the sensor by means of a digital signal processor.
• The voltage is obtained by interpolating information extracted from segments of the
signals and counting their optical fringes.
• The signal is then amplified to provide a 120 V output proportional to the applied
voltage.