Adwsn Unit 1

EC8702
AD HOC AND WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS
Topic Name : Introduction

Unit No : 1
Presentation no : 1
Year : 2020
Semester : VII
Date : 01-09-2020
Faculty Name : Navaneeth Bhaskar 1 Department of ECE

UNIT I AD HOC NETWORKS INTRODUCTION AND
ROUTING PROTOCOLS
SYLLABUS
Elements of Ad hoc Wireless Networks, Issues in Ad hoc wireless

networks, Example commercial applications of Ad hoc networking, Ad
hoc wireless Internet, Issues in Designing a Routing Protocol for Ad
Hoc Wireless Networks, Classifications of Routing Protocols, Table
Driven Routing Protocols - Destination Sequenced Distance Vector
(DSDV), On Demand Routing protocols Ad hoc On Demand Distance
Vector Routing (AODV).
TEXT BOOK: C. Siva Ram Murthy and B. S. Manoj, Ad Hoc Wireless

Networks Architectures and Protocols, Prentice Hall, PTR, 2004. (Unit 1)

AD HOC NETWORK
An ad hoc network is one that is spontaneously formed when

devices connect and communicate with each other.
The term ad hoc is a Latin word that literally means "for this"
implying improvised.
Ad hoc networks are mostly wireless local area networks (LANs).

The devices communicate with each other directly instead of
relying on a base station or access points as in wireless LANs for
data transfer co-ordination.

Each device participates in routing activity, by determining
the route using the routing algorithm and forwarding data to
other devices via this route.

• A wireless ad-hoc network (WANET) is a type of local area
network (LAN) that is built spontaneously to enable two or
more wireless devices to be connected to each other without
requiring a central device, such as a router or access point.
• Since the devices in the ad-hoc network can access each other's
resources directly through a basic point-to-point wireless
connection, central servers are not needed.
• In a wireless ad-hoc network, a collection of devices (or nodes)

is responsible for network operations, such as routing, security,
addressing and key management.

How does it work
• Devices in the ad-hoc network require a wireless network

adapter, and they need to support a hosted network.
• When setting up a wireless ad-hoc network, each wireless

adapter must be configured for ad-hoc mode instead of
infrastructure mode.
• All wireless adapters need to use the same service set identifier
(SSID) and channel number.

Uses
• Deciding when to employ ad-hoc versus infrastructure mode

depends on the use.
• A user who wants a wireless router to act as an access point

should choose infrastructure mode, but ad-hoc mode might be
a good option for a user setting up a temporary wireless
network between a small number of devices.
• Ad-hoc networks are used frequently in new types of wireless

engineering.

• Wireless ad-hoc networks require minimal configuration and
can be deployed quickly, which makes them suitable for
emergencies, such as natural disasters or military conflicts.
Thanks to the presence of dynamic and adaptive routing
protocols, these networks can be configured quickly.
• These on-demand networks are useful for putting together a

small, inexpensive all-wireless LAN.
• They also work well as a temporary fallback mechanism if

equipment for an infrastructure mode network fails.

Classifications of Ad Hoc
Networks

Mobile ad hoc network (MANET)
• A mobile ad hoc network involves

mobile devices communicating
directly with one another.
• A MANET is a network of wireless

mobile devices without an
infrastructure that are self-organizing
and self-configuring and is sometimes
referred to as an "on-the-fly" or
"spontaneous network."

Vehicular ad hoc networks (VANET)
• Vehicular ad-hoc network, involves communication devices in
vehicles. These networks are employed for communication
between vehicles and roadside equipment.
• Vehicle-to-vehicle and vehicle-to-roadside communications

architectures will co-exist in VANETs to provide road safety,
navigation, and other roadside services.
• VANETs are a key part of the intelligent transportation systems

(ITS) framework. Sometimes, VANETs are referred as Intelligent
Transportation Networks.

Vehicular ad hoc networks (VANET)

Vehicular ad hoc networks:
Applications/Features:
• Electronic brake lights, which allow a driver to react to vehicles

breaking even though they might be obscured (e.g., by other
vehicles).
• Platooning, which allows vehicles to closely follow a leading
vehicle by wirelessly receiving acceleration and steering
information, thus forming electronically coupled "road trains".
• Traffic information systems, which use VANET communication
to provide up-to-the minute obstacle reports to a vehicle's
satellite navigation system.

• Road Transportation Emergency Services – Where VANET
communications, VANET networks, and road safety warning
and status information dissemination are used to reduce
delays and speed up emergency rescue operations to save the
lives of those injured.
• On-The-Road Services – It is also envisioned that the future

transportation highway would be "information-driven" or
"wirelessly-enabled". VANETs can help advertise services
(shops, gas stations, restaurants, etc.) to the driver, and even
send notifications of any sale going on at that moment.

Self driving vehicles

Wireless Mesh Network (WMN)
• In a wireless mesh network, the network connection is spread

out among dozens or even hundreds of wireless mesh nodes
that "talk" to each other to share the network connection
across a large area.
• Each node in the network acts as a forwarding node to

transfer the data.
• Since the network is decentralized, forwarding of data is

possible only to the neighboring node. WMN makes the
people connected with the Internet who work at remote
areas.

• Mesh nodes are small radio transmitters that function in the
same way as a wireless router.
• Nodes use the common WiFi standards to communicate

wirelessly with users, and, more importantly, with each
other.
• Nodes are programmed with software that tells them how

to interact within the larger network.
• The nodes automatically choose the quickest and safest

path in a process known as dynamic routing.

• In a wireless mesh network, only one node needs to be
physically wired to a network connection. That one wired
node then shares its Internet connection wirelessly with all
other nodes in its vicinity.
• Those nodes then share the connection wirelessly with the

nodes closest to them.
• The more nodes, the further the connection spreads,

creating a wireless "cloud of connectivity" that can serve a
small office or a city of millions.

Wireless Mesh Technology
A hub on a streetlight

Smartphone ad hoc network (SPAN)
• Smartphone ad hoc networks are wireless ad hoc networks

that use smartphones.
• Once embedded with ad hoc networking technology, a group

of smartphones in close proximity can together create an ad
hoc network.
• Smart phone ad hoc networks use the existing hardware

(primarily Bluetooth and Wi-Fi) in commercially available
smartphones to create peer-to-peer networks without relying
on cellular carrier networks, wireless access points, or
traditional network infrastructure.

Smartphone ad hoc network

Wireless Sensor Network (WSN)
• Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is an infrastructure-less

wireless network that is deployed in a large number of
wireless sensors in an ad-hoc manner that is used monitor
physical or environmental conditions, such as temperature,
sound, vibration, pressure, motion or pollutants.
• Sensor nodes are used in WSN with the onboard processor

that manages and monitors the environment in a particular
area.
• One can retrieve required information from the network by

injecting queries and gathering results from the sink.

Wireless Sensor Network (WSN)

Advantages of Ad-hoc Network
• Ad-hoc mode can be easier to set up than infrastructure mode

when just connecting two devices without requiring a
centralized access point.
• For example, if a user has two laptops and is in a hotel room

without Wi-Fi, they can be connected directly in ad-hoc mode
to create a temporary Wi-Fi network without a router.
• The Wi-Fi Direct standard - a specification that allows devices

certified for Wi-Fi Direct to exchange data without an internet
connection or a wireless router - also builds on ad-hoc mode
and enables devices to communicate directly.

Other benefits of wireless ad-hoc networks include the
following:
• Because ad-hoc networks do not require access points, these

networks provide a low-cost way of direct client-to-client
communication.
• Ad-hoc networks are easy to configure and offer an effective

way to communicate with devices nearby when time is of the
essence and running cable is not feasible.
• An ad-hoc network linking a small number of devices might be

better than a regular network with more users connected.

Disadvantages of Ad-hoc Network
• One major drawback of wireless ad-hoc networking is that

some Wi-Fi enabled technology, including Android devices
don't support ad-hoc mode because of its limitations and will
only connect to networks in infrastructure mode.
• As the number of devices in an ad-hoc network increases, it

gets harder to manage because there isn't a central device
through which all traffic flows. When several devices are
connected to the ad-hoc network, more wireless interference
will occur as each device has to establish a direct connection
to each of the other devices, instead of going through a single
access point.

• Attackers can find and connect to an ad-hoc device if they are
within signal range.
• Devices can only use the internet if one of them is connected

to and sharing it with the others. When internet sharing is
enabled, the client performing this function may face
performance problems, especially if there are lots of
interconnected devices.
• When a device is out of range of another device, to which it

needs to connect, it will pass the data through other devices
on the way; this is slower than passing it through a single
access point.

Cellular and Ad Hoc Wireless Networks

Cellular Network
The path setup for

a call between two
nodes, say, node C
to node E, is
completed through
the base station.

Ad Hoc Wireless
The path setup

between node C to
node E, is
completed through
the intermediate
mobile node F.

Difference between Cellular and Ad hoc network
Parameters Cellular network Ad Hoc network
Centralized, all the Distributed, No

Network routing traffic goes through the centralized system such
Base Station as Base station needed
Switching Type Circuit Switching Packet Switching

Number of Hops Single hop type Multiple hops
Topology Star Mesh
Designed and Designed to meet best

Application developed for voice effort data traffic
traffic requirements

Parameters Cellular network Ad Hoc network
Cost and time for Higher cost and takes more Lower cost and does not
installation time for deployment take more time for
deployment
Requires periodic
Network maintenance maintenance and hence it is Nodes are self organizing
and hence it is less costly.
costly.
It utilizes same frequency Dynamic frequency re-
Frequency re-use channels in the nearby cells use is employed using
with proper antenna
placement. carrier sense mechanism.
IS-95, IS-136, GSM, Mobile

Technologies WiMAX, CDMA, LTE WLAN 802.11e

Applications of Ad Hoc Wireless Networks
1. Military Applications
• Ad hoc wireless networks can be very useful in establishing

communication among a group of soldiers for tactical
operations.
• Another application in this area can be the coordination of

military objects moving at high speeds such as fleets of
airplanes or warships. Such applications require quick and
reliable communication.

• As the military applications require very secure
communication at any cost, the vehicle-mounted nodes can
be assumed to be very sophisticated and powerful.
2. Collaborative and Distributed Computing
• The requirement of a temporary communication

infrastructure for quick communication with minimal
configuration among a group of people in a conference or
gathering.
• Another domain in which the ad hoc wireless networks find

applications is collaborative computing.

• Can be used to share presentation materials during a
conference, or for a lecturer to distribute the notes to the class
on the fly.
3. Emergency Operations
• Ad hoc wireless networks are very useful in emergency

operations such as search and rescue, crowd control, and
commando operations.
• In environments where the conventional infrastructure-based

communication facilities are destroyed due to a war or due to
natural calamities such as earthquakes, ad hoc wireless
networks can be implemented for rescue activities.

4. Wireless Mesh Networks
• Wireless mesh networks are ad hoc wireless networks that are

formed to provide an alternate communication infrastructure
for mobile or fixed nodes/users, without the spectrum reuse
constraints and the requirements of network planning of
cellular networks.
• The investment required in wireless mesh networks is much

less than what is required for the cellular network.

Wireless mesh network operating in a residential zone

5. Wireless Sensor Networks
• Recent advances in wireless communication technology and

research in ad hoc wireless networks have made smart sensing
a reality. Sensor nodes are tiny devices that have the capability
of sensing parameters, processing, and communicating over the
network to the monitoring station.
• A sensor network is a collection of a large number of sensor

nodes that are deployed in a particular region.
• Sensing of environmental factors for the measurement of

parameters such as temperature, humidity, and nuclear
radiation.

Issues In Ad Hoc Wireless Networks
There are many challenges in design, deployment, and

performance of ad hoc:
1. Medium access scheme

2. Routing
3. Multicasting
4. Transport layer protocol
5. Pricing scheme
6. Quality of service provisioning
7. Self-organization
8. Security

9. Energy management
10. Addressing and service discovery
11. Scalability
12. Deployment considerations
1. Medium access scheme
• The medium access control (MAC) protocol in ad hoc wireless

networks controls the transmission of data packets via remotely
shared channels.
• Performance depends on MAC protocol.

Challenges of MAC protocol in ad-hoc wireless network are:
• Distributed operation - The ad hoc wireless networks need to

operate in environments where no centralized coordination is
possible. The MAC protocol design should be fully distributed
involving minimum control overhead.
• Synchronization - The MAC protocol design should take into

account the requirement of time synchronization.
Synchronization involves usage of scarce resources such as
bandwidth and battery power.

• Hidden terminals - Hidden terminals are nodes that are hidden
(or not reachable) from the sender of a data transmission
session, but are reachable to the receiver of the session. Hidden
terminals can affect the network performance. Hence the MAC
protocol should be able to reduce the effects of hidden
terminals.
• Throughput - The MAC protocol employed in ad hoc wireless

networks should attempt to maximize the throughput of the
system. The important considerations for throughput
enhancement are minimizing the occurrence of collisions,
maximizing channel utilization, and minimizing control overhead.

• Access delay - The access delay refers to the average delay that
any packet experiences to get transmitted. The MAC protocol
should attempt to minimize the delay.
• Fairness - Fairness refers to the ability of the MAC protocol to

provide an equal share or weighted share of the bandwidth to
all competing nodes. In ad hoc wireless networks, fairness is
important due to the multi-hop relaying done by the nodes. An
unfair relaying load for a node results in draining the resources
of that node much faster than that of other nodes.
• Use of directional antennas - Most of the existing MAC

protocols that use omnidirectional antennas do not work with
directional antennas.

• Adaptive rate control - This refers to the variation in the data bit
rate achieved over a channel. A MAC protocol that has adaptive
rate control can make use of a high data rate when the sender
and receiver are nearby and adaptively reduce the data rate as
they move away from each other.
• Capability for power control - The transmission power control

reduces the energy consumption at the nodes, causes a decrease
in interference at neighboring nodes, and increases frequency
reuse. Support for power control at the MAC layer is very
important in the ad hoc wireless environment.

2. Routing
The responsibility of any routing protocol:
• Determining a feasible path to a destination based on a certain

criterion.
• Discovering, storing, and exchanging routing information.
• Gathering information about a path breaks and updating route

information accordingly.

Challenges for routing protocol in ad-hoc networks:
• Mobility - One of the most important properties of ad hoc

wireless networks is the mobility associated with the nodes.
The mobility of nodes results in frequent path breaks, packet
collisions, transient loops, stale routing information, and
difficulty in resource reservation. A good routing protocol
should be able to efficiently solve all the above issues.
• Bandwidth constraint - Since the channel is shared by all nodes

in the broadcast region only a fraction of the total bandwidth is
available for every node.

• Location-dependent contention - The load on the wireless
channel varies with the number of nodes present in a given
geographical region. A good routing protocol should have built-
in mechanisms for distributing the network load uniformly
across the network so that the formation of regions where
channel contention is high can be avoided.
• Error-prone and shared channel - The bit error rate (BER) in a

wireless channel is very high (of the order of 105 to 103)
compared to that in its wired counterparts (of the order of 1012
to 109).

Requirements of a routing protocol in ad-hoc networks:
• Minimum route acquisition delay

• Quick route reconfiguration
• Loop-free routing
• Distributed routing
• Low overhead
• Scalability
• Privacy
• Support of time-sensitive traffic

3. Multicasting
• Multicasting means sending to multiple recipients. Multicasting

plays an important role in the typical applications of ad hoc
wireless networks namely, emergency search-and-rescue
operations and military communication.
• The arbitrary movement of nodes changes the topology

dynamically in an unpredictable manner.
• The mesh-based multicast routing structure may work well in a

high-mobility environment.

Major issues in designing multicast routing protocols are as
follows:
• Robustness - The multicast routing protocol must be able to

recover and reconfigure quickly from potential mobility induced
link breaks thus making it suitable for use in highly dynamic
environments.
• Efficiency - A multicast protocol should make a minimum

number of transmissions to deliver a data packet to all the
group members.

• Quality of service - QoS support is essential in multicast routing
because, in most cases, the data transferred in a multicast
session is time-sensitive.
• Scalability - The multicast routing protocol should be able to

scale for a network with a large number of nodes.
• Security - Authentication of session members and prevention of

non-members from gaining unauthorized information play a
major role in military communications.
• Efficient group management - Group management is the

process of accepting multicast session members and
maintaining the connectivity among them until the session
expires.

4. Transport Layer Protocols
• The main objectives of the transport layer protocols include

setting up and maintaining end-to end connections, reliable
end-to-end delivery of data packets, flow control, and
congestion control.
• The major performance degradation faced by a reliable

connection-oriented transport layer protocol such as
transmission control protocol (TCP) in an ad hoc wireless
network arises due to frequent path breaks, presence of stale
routing information, high channel error rate, and frequent
network partitions.

5. Pricing scheme
• Ad hoc wireless networks employed for special tasks such as

military missions, rescue operations, and law enforcement do
not require such pricing schemes, whereas the successful
commercial deployment of ad hoc wireless networks requires
billing and pricing.
6. Quality of service provisioning
• Quality of service (QoS) is the performance level of services

offered to the user. Determining the degree of satisfaction of
the user.

• QoS includes a number of concepts including:
 Traffic performance in the network

 Service support performance
 Service operability performance
 Service security performance
• QoS parameters - As different applications have different

requirements, their level of QoS and the associated QoS
parameters also differ from application to application. For
example, for multimedia applications, the bandwidth and delay
are the key parameters, whereas military applications have the
additional requirements of security and reliability.

• QoS-aware routing - The first step toward a QoS-aware routing
protocol is to have the routing use QoS parameters for finding a
path. The parameters that can be considered for routing
decisions are network throughput, packet delivery ratio,
reliability, delay, packet loss rate, bit error rate, and path loss.
• QoS framework - A framework for QoS is a complete system

that attempts to provide the promised services to each user or
application. All the components within this subsystem should
cooperate in providing the required services.

7. Self-Organization
• One very important property that an ad hoc wireless network

should exhibit is organizing and maintaining the network by
itself.
• The major activities that an ad hoc wireless network is required

to perform for self-organization are neighbor discovery,
topology organization, and topology reorganization.
• During the neighbor discovery phase, every node in the

network gathers information about its neighbors and maintains
that information in appropriate data structures.

• In the topology organization phase, every node in the network
gathers information about the entire network or a part of the
network in order to maintain topological information.
• During the topology reorganization phase, the ad hoc wireless

networks require updating the topology information by
incorporating the topological changes occurred in the network
due to the mobility of nodes, failure of nodes, or complete
depletion of power sources of the nodes.
• Ad hoc wireless networks should be able to perform self-

organization quickly and efficiently in a way transparent to the
user and the application.

8. Security
• The security of communication in ad hoc wireless networks is

very important, especially in military applications.
• The lack of any central coordination and shared wireless

medium makes them more vulnerable to attacks than wired
networks.
• The attacks against ad hoc wireless networks are generally

classified into two types: passive and active attacks.

• Passive attacks refer to the attempts made by malicious nodes
to perceive the nature of activities and to obtain information
transacted in the network without disrupting the operation.
• Active attacks disrupt the operation of the network. Active

attacks disrupt the operation of the network and classified into
the following types:
 External attacks - attacks executed by nodes outside the

network.
 Internal attacks - attacks executed by nodes belonging to the

same network.

9. Energy Management
• Energy management is defined as the process of managing the

sources and consumers of energy in a node or in the network as
a whole for enhancing the lifetime of the network.
• Energy savings can be achieved by:
 Transmission power management

 Battery energy management
 Processor power management
 Devices power management

 Transmission power management- The power consumed by the
radio frequency module of a mobile node is determined by
several factors such as the state of operation, the transmission
power, and the technology used for the RF circuitry. The RF
hardware design should ensure minimum power consumption
in all the three states of operation (transmit, receive, and sleep
modes).
 Battery energy management - The battery management is

aimed at extending the battery life of a node by taking
advantage of its chemical properties, discharge patterns, and by
the selection of a battery from a set of batteries that is available
for redundancy.

 Processor power management - The clock speed and the
number of instructions executed per unit time are some of the
processor parameters that affect power consumption. The CPU
can be put into different power saving modes during low
processing load conditions. The CPU power can be completely
turned off if the machine is idle for a long time.
 Devices power management - Intelligent device management

can reduce power consumption of a mobile node significantly.
This can be done by the operating system (OS) by selectively
powering down interface devices that are not used or by
putting devices into different power saving modes, depending
on their usage.

10. Addressing and service discovery
• Addressing and service discovery assume significance in ad hoc

wireless networks due to the absence of any centralized
coordinator.
• Nodes in the network should be able to locate services that

other nodes provide.
• The following features are required for ad-hoc addressing

scheme:
 Global unique address
 Auto configuration of addresses
 Duplicate address detection mechanism

11. Scalability
• Commercial deployments of ad hoc wireless networks that

include wireless mesh networks show early trends for a
widespread installation of ad hoc wireless networks for
mainstream wireless communication.
• Hybrid architectures that combine the multi-hop radio relaying

in the presence of infrastructure may improve scalability.
• Also a large ad hoc wireless network cannot be expected to be

formed by homogeneous nodes, raising issues such as widely
varying resource capabilities across the nodes.

12. Deployment Considerations
• The deployment of ad hoc wireless networks involves actions

different from those of wired networks. It requires a good
amount of planning and estimation of future traffic growth over
any link in the network.
• Deployment parameters to be considered are:

 Cost of deployment
 Incremental deployment
 Deployment time
 Re-configurability

AD HOC WIRELESS INTERNET
• Ad hoc wireless Internet extends the services of the Internet to

the end users over an ad hoc wireless network.
• Some of the applications of the ad hoc wireless Internet are:
 Wireless mesh networks

 Provisioning of temporary Internet services to major
conference venues, sports venues, temporary military
settlements, battlefields
 Broadband Internet services in rural regions

AD HOC WIRELESS INTERNET

Major issues to be considered for a successful ad hoc wireless
Internet are:
• Gateways: Gateway nodes in the ad hoc wireless Internet are

the entry points to the wired Internet. The major part of the
service provisioning lies with the gateway nodes. Generally
owned and operated by a service provider, gateways perform
the following tasks: keeping track of the end users, bandwidth
management, load balancing, traffic shaping, packet filtering,
bandwidth fairness, and address, service, and location
discovery.

• Routing: Routing is a major problem in the ad hoc wireless
Internet, due to the dynamic topological changes, the presence
of gateways, multi-hop relaying, and the hybrid character of the
network. The possible solution for this is the use of a separate
routing protocol.
• Load balancing: It is likely that the ad hoc wireless Internet

gateways experience heavy traffic. Load balancing techniques
are essential to distribute the load so as to avoid the situation
where the gateway nodes become bottleneck nodes.
• Security: Security is a prime concern in the ad hoc wireless

Internet as the users utilize the ad hoc wireless Internet
infrastructure to make e-commerce transactions.

• Pricing/billing: Since Internet bandwidth is expensive, it
becomes very important to introduce pricing/billing strategies
for the ad hoc wireless Internet. Gateway is the preferred
choice for charging the traffic to and from the Internet.
• QoS support: With the widespread use of voice over IP (VoIP)

and growing multimedia applications over the Internet,
provisioning of QoS support in the ad hoc wireless Internet
becomes a very important issue.
• Location discovery: Location discovery refers to different

activities such as detecting the location of a particular mobile
node in the network or detecting the geographical location of
nodes.

Hidden Terminal Problem
• The hidden terminal problem refers to the collision of packets

at a receiving node due to the simultaneous transmission of
those nodes that are not within the direct transmission range
of the sender, but are within the transmission range of the
receiver.
• Collision occurs when both nodes transmit packets at the same

time without knowing about the transmission of each other.
• Here, if both node A and node C transmit to node B at the

same time, their packets collide at node B.

• This is due to the fact that both nodes A and C are hidden from
each other, as they are not within the direct transmission
range of each other and hence do not know about the
presence of each other.
• Solutions for this problem include:
 Medium access collision avoidance (MACA)

 Medium access collision avoidance for wireless (MACAW)
 Floor acquisition multiple access (FAMA)
 Dual busy tone multiple access (DBTMA)

Exposed Terminal Problem
• The exposed terminal problem refers to the inability of a node

which is blocked due to transmission by a nearby transmitting
node to transmit to another node.
• If a transmission from node B to another node A is already in

progress, node C cannot transmit to node D, as it concludes
that its neighbor, node B, is in transmitting mode and hence
should not interfere with the on-going transmission.
• Thus, reusability of the radio spectrum is affected.

Characteristics of an Ideal Routing Protocol for Ad Hoc
Wireless Networks
• It must be adaptive to frequent topology changes caused by

the mobility of nodes.
• The number of packet collisions must be kept to a minimum by

limiting the number of broadcasts made by each node.
• The transmissions should be reliable to reduce message loss

and to prevent the occurrence of hard routes.
• It must optimally use the resources such as bandwidth,

computing power, memory, and battery power.

• Every node in the network should try to store information
regarding the stable local topology only.
• It should be able to provide a certain level of quality of service

as demanded by the applications.
• Route computation and maintenance must involve a minimum

number of nodes.
• Each node in the network must have quick access to routes,

that is, minimum connection setup time is desired.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF ROUTING PROTOCOLS
• The routing protocols for ad hoc wireless networks can be

broadly classified into four categories based on:
 Routing information update mechanism
 Use of temporal information for routing
 Routing topology
 Utilization of specific resources

Based on the Routing Information Update Mechanism:
• Ad hoc wireless network routing protocols can be classified

into three major categories based on the routing information
update mechanism.
 Proactive or table-driven routing protocols: In table-driven

routing protocols, every node maintains the network topology
information in the form of routing tables by periodically
exchanging routing information. Whenever a node requires a
path to a destination, it runs an appropriate path-finding
algorithm on the topology information it maintains.

 Reactive or on-demand routing protocols: Protocols that fall
under this category do not maintain the network topology
information. They obtain the necessary path when it is
required, by using a connection establishment process.
 Hybrid routing protocols: Protocols belonging to this category

combine the best features of the above two categories. Nodes
within a certain distance or within a particular geographical
region, are said to be within the routing zone of the given
node. For routing within this zone, a table-driven approach is
used. For nodes that are located beyond this zone, an on-
demand approach is used.

Based on the Use of Temporal Information for Routing:
• The protocols that fall under this category can be classified

into two types:
 Routing protocols using past temporal information: These

routing protocols use information about the past status of the
links or the status of links at the time of routing to make
routing decisions.
 Routing protocols that use future temporal information:

Protocols belonging to this category use information about the
expected future status of the wireless links to make
approximate routing decisions.

Based on the Routing Topology:

into two types:
 Flat topology routing protocols: Protocols that fall under this

category make use of a flat addressing scheme similar to the
one used in IEEE 802.3 LANs.
 Hierarchical topology routing protocols: Protocols belonging

to this category make use of a logical hierarchy in the network
and an associated addressing scheme. The hierarchy could be
based on geographical information or it could be based on hop
distance.

Based on the Utilization of Specific Resources:

into two types:
 Power-aware routing: This category of routing protocols aims

at minimizing the consumption of the battery power in the ad
hoc wireless network.
 Geographical information assisted routing: Protocols

belonging to this category improve the performance of routing
and reduce the control overhead by effectively utilizing the
geographical information available.

TABLE-DRIVEN ROUTING PROTOCOL
• These protocols are extensions of the wired network routing

protocols. They maintain the global topology information in
the form of tables at every node.
• These tables are updated frequently in order to maintain

consistent and accurate network state information.
• The destination sequenced distance-vector routing protocol

(DSDV), wireless routing protocol (WRP), source-tree adaptive
routing protocol (STAR), and cluster-head gateway switch
routing protocol (CGSR) are some examples for the protocols
that belong to this category.

Destination Sequenced Distance-Vector Routing
Protocol
• The destination sequenced distance-vector routing protocol

(DSDV) is one of the first protocols proposed for ad hoc
wireless networks.
• It is an enhanced version of the distributed Bellman-Ford

algorithm where each node maintains a table that contains the
shortest distance and the first node on the shortest path to
every other node in the network.
• As it is a table-driven routing protocol, routes to all

destinations are readily available at every node at all times.

Route establishment in DSDV

• The tables are exchanged between neighbors at regular
intervals to keep an up-to-date view of the network topology.
• Table updates are initiated by a destination with a new

sequence number which is always greater than the previous
one. Upon receiving an updated table, a node either updates
its tables based on the received information or holds it for
some time to select the best metric received from multiple
versions of the same update table from different neighboring
nodes.
• Based on the sequence number of the table update, it may

forward or reject the table.

• A single link break leads to the propagation of table update
information to the whole network.
• Consider the case when node 11 moves from its current position.
When a neighbor node perceives the link break, it sets all the
paths passing through the broken link with distance as ∞.
• For example, when node 10 knows about the link break, it

broadcasts its routing table to its neighbors. Those neighbors
detecting significant changes in their routing tables rebroadcast it
to their neighbors.
• In this way, the broken link information propagates throughout

the network.

Route maintenance in DSDV

ON-DEMAND ROUTING PROTOCOL
• Unlike the table-driven routing protocols, on-demand routing
protocols execute the path-finding process and exchange routing
information only when a path is required by a node to
communicate with a destination. One example for on-demand
routing protocol is AODV.
Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance-Vector Routing Protocol
• Ad hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV) routing protocol uses

an on demand approach for finding routes, that is, a route is
established only when it is required by a source node for
transmitting data packets.

• In an on-demand routing protocol, the source node floods the
RouteRequest packet in the network when a route is not
available for the desired destination. It may obtain multiple
routes to different destinations from a single RouteRequest.
• The major difference between AODV and other on-demand

routing protocols is that it uses a destination sequence
number (DestSeqNum) to determine an up-to-date path to the
destination.
• A node updates its path information only if the DestSeqNum of

the current packet received is greater than the last
DestSeqNum stored at the node.

• When an intermediate node receives a RouteRequest, it either
forwards it or prepares a RouteReply if it has a valid route to
the destination.
• The validity of a route at the intermediate node is determined

by comparing the sequence number at the intermediate node
with the destination sequence number in the RouteRequest
packet.
• All intermediate nodes having valid routes to the destination,

or the destination node itself, are allowed to send RouteReply
packets to the source.

Route establishment in AODV

• Source node 1 initiates a path-finding process by originating a
RouteRequest to be flooded in the network for destination
node 15, assuming that the RouteRequest contains the
destination sequence number as 3 and the source sequence
number as 1.
• When nodes 2, 5, and 6 receive the RouteRequest packet, they

check their routes to the destination.
• In case a route to the destination is not available, they further

forward it to their neighbors. Here nodes 3, 4, and 10 are the
neighbors of nodes 2, 5, and 6.

• This is with the assumption that intermediate nodes 3 and 10
already have routes to the destination node, that is, node 15
through paths 10-14-15 and 3-7-9-13-15, respectively.
• If the destination sequence number at intermediate node 10 is

4 and is 1 at intermediate node 3, then only node 10 is allowed
to reply along the cached route to the source.
• This is because node 3 has an older route to node 15

compared to the route available at the source node, while
node 10 has a more recent route to the destination.

• AODV does not repair a broken path locally. When a source
node learns about the path break, it reestablishes the route to
the destination if required by the higher layers.
• If a path break is detected at an intermediate node, the node

informs the end nodes by sending a RouteReply with the hop
count set as ∞.
• When a path breaks, for example, between nodes 4 and 5,

both the nodes initiate RouteError messages to inform their
end nodes about the link break.

Route maintenance in AODV

• The main advantage of this protocol is that routes are
established on demand and destination sequence numbers are
used to find the latest route to the destination.
• The connection setup delay is less.
• One of the disadvantages of this protocol is that multiple

RouteReply packets in response to a single RouteRequest
packet can lead to heavy control overhead.

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EC8702

AD HOC AND WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS

Topic Name : Introduction

Faculty Name : Navaneeth Bhaskar 1 Department of ECE

Elements of Ad hoc Wireless Networks, Issues in Ad hoc wireless

TEXT BOOK: C. Siva Ram Murthy and B. S. Manoj, Ad Hoc Wireless

Faculty Name : Navaneeth Bhaskar 2 Department of ECE

An ad hoc network is one that is spontaneously formed when

Ad hoc networks are mostly wireless local area networks (LANs).

Faculty Name : Navaneeth Bhaskar 3 Department of ECE

Faculty Name : Navaneeth Bhaskar 4 Department of ECE

• In a wireless ad-hoc network, a collection of devices (or nodes)

Faculty Name : Navaneeth Bhaskar 5 Department of ECE

• Devices in the ad-hoc network require a wireless network

• When setting up a wireless ad-hoc network, each wireless

Faculty Name : Navaneeth Bhaskar 6 Department of ECE

• Deciding when to employ ad-hoc versus infrastructure mode

• A user who wants a wireless router to act as an access point

• Ad-hoc networks are used frequently in new types of wireless

Faculty Name : Navaneeth Bhaskar 7 Department of ECE

• These on-demand networks are useful for putting together a

• They also work well as a temporary fallback mechanism if

Faculty Name : Navaneeth Bhaskar 8 Department of ECE

Faculty Name : Navaneeth Bhaskar 9 Department of ECE

• A mobile ad hoc network involves

• A MANET is a network of wireless

Faculty Name : Navaneeth Bhaskar 10 Department of ECE

• Vehicle-to-vehicle and vehicle-to-roadside communications

• VANETs are a key part of the intelligent transportation systems

Faculty Name : Navaneeth Bhaskar 11 Department of ECE

Faculty Name : Navaneeth Bhaskar 12 Department of ECE

• Electronic brake lights, which allow a driver to react to vehicles

Faculty Name : Navaneeth Bhaskar 13 Department of ECE

• On-The-Road Services – It is also envisioned that the future

Faculty Name : Navaneeth Bhaskar 14 Department of ECE

Faculty Name : Navaneeth Bhaskar 15 Department of ECE

• In a wireless mesh network, the network connection is spread

• Each node in the network acts as a forwarding node to

• Since the network is decentralized, forwarding of data is

Faculty Name : Navaneeth Bhaskar 16 Department of ECE

• Nodes use the common WiFi standards to communicate

• Nodes are programmed with software that tells them how

• The nodes automatically choose the quickest and safest

Faculty Name : Navaneeth Bhaskar 17 Department of ECE

• Those nodes then share the connection wirelessly with the

• The more nodes, the further the connection spreads,

Faculty Name : Navaneeth Bhaskar 18 Department of ECE

Faculty Name : Navaneeth Bhaskar 19 Department of ECE

• Smartphone ad hoc networks are wireless ad hoc networks

• Once embedded with ad hoc networking technology, a group

• Smart phone ad hoc networks use the existing hardware

Faculty Name : Navaneeth Bhaskar 20 Department of ECE

Faculty Name : Navaneeth Bhaskar 21 Department of ECE

• Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is an infrastructure-less

• Sensor nodes are used in WSN with the onboard processor

• One can retrieve required information from the network by

Faculty Name : Navaneeth Bhaskar 22 Department of ECE

Faculty Name : Navaneeth Bhaskar 23 Department of ECE

• Ad-hoc mode can be easier to set up than infrastructure mode