3.

0 MATERIAL PROPERTIES OF METALS AND

FAILURE
 Material properties
• Mechanical properties
• Physical properties
• Electrical properties
• Environmental properties
• Optical properties

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 3.1 CONCEPTS: STRESS AND STRAIN
• Every component in a linear motion system
experiences some form of loading due to applied
forces or motion. The component’s reactions to these
loads are described by its mechanical properties.
• For components subjected to tension or compression
— such as load-carrying balls and rollers, shafts
mounted vertically, or fastening and joining hardware
• The mechanical properties of stress and strain play an
important role in determining whether the component
can withstand the application’s loading conditions.

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 3.2 TYPES OF LOADING

Torsion
the twisting or
Compression Shear
Tension wrenching of a body
the act of pressing  If part of something, 
the state of being by the exertion of
something into a  especially something
tight and stiff forces
smaller space or made of metal,
putting pressure  shears, it breaks into
on it from different  two pieces, usually Bending
sides until it gets  because of a  to turn or force from
smaller sideways force: straight or even to
curved or angular
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3.2 MATERIAL PROPERTIES
The most common mechanical properties considered are
strength, ductility, hardness, brittleness, fracture, toughness,
elasticity and plasticity etc.

The mechanical properties of metals determine the range of

usefulness of a material and establish the service life that can be
expected.

Materials properties of metal can be improved by heat

treatment, alloying & mechanical work.

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3.2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES IN MATERIAL TESTING

The understanding of these mechanical properties will help to

select the most suitable material to produce a product in
industry.
MECHANICAL DEFINITION
PROPERTIES
Strength ability to withstand various forces to which it is subjected during a
test or in service (resist deformation).
Hardness resistance of material to penetration.
Elasticity nonpermanent deformations which are the materials return to its
original shape when the applied stress is released.
Plasticity permanent deformations which are the materials does not return
to its original shape when the applied stress is released.

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3.2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES IN MATERIAL
TESTING

MECHANICAL DEFINITION
PROPERTIES
Ductility the ability of a metal to withstand elongation or bending before
fracture under tensile force.
Toughness is a measure of the amount of energy a material can absorb before
actual fracture or failure takes place.
/ Ability of a material to prevent impact load without fracture.
Brittleness Break or shatters without having plastic deformation.

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 3.2 STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOR FOR ELASTIC
DEFORMATION

• Hooke’s law—relationship between

engineering stress and engineering strain for
elastic deformation (tension and compression)
• Deformation in which stress and strain are
proportional
• Elastic deformation is non permanent, which
means that when the applied load is released,
the piece returns to its original shape.
• Stress & strain=elastic deformation (hooke’s
law)
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3.2 LINEAR ELASTIC AND NON-LINEAR ELASTIC

• As shown in the stress–strain plot lurus

Figure 3.2.1

Figure 3.2.2
Schematic
stress–strain diagram showing
nonlinear elastic behavior
and how secant and tangent
moduli are determined.

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3.2 LINEAR ELASTIC AND NON-LINEAR ELASTIC

• Figure 3.2.1, application of the load

corresponds to moving from the origin up and
along the straight line. Upon release of the
load, the line is transverse in the opposite
direction, back to the origin
• There are some materials (e.g., gray cast iron,
concrete, and many polymers) for which this
elastic portion of the stress–strain curve is not
linear Figure 3.2.2
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3.2 STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOR FOR PLASTIC
DEFORMATION
• For most metallic materials, elastic
deformation persists only to strains of about
0.005 unit???. As the material is deformed
beyond this point, the stress is no longer
proportional to strain (Hooke’s law) and the
changes is permanent, or plastic deformation
occurs

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3.2 STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOR FOR PLASTIC
DEFORMATION
Figure 3.2.3
Typical stress–strain behavior for
a metal showing elastic and plastic
deformations, the proportional limit P,
and the yield strength as determined
using the 0.002 strain offset method.

Figure 3.2.4
The stress corresponding to the intersection of
this line and the stress–strain curve as it
bends over in the plastic region is defined as
the yield strength

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3.2 TENSILE PROPERTIES FOR PLASTIC
DEFORMATION
• After yielding, the stress necessary to continue plastic
deformation in metals increases to a maximum, point M in Figure
3.2.5, and then decreases to the eventual fracture, point F.
• The tensile strength is the stress at the maximumon the
engineering stress–strain curve Figure 3.2.5
Figure 3.2.5
Typical engineering stress–strain behavior to
fracture, point F. The tensile
strength TS is indicated at point M. The
circular insets represent the geometry of the
deformed specimen at various points along
the curve.

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3.2 TENSILE PROPERTIES FOR PLASTIC
DEFORMATION
• This corresponds to the maximum stress that can
be sustained by a structure in tension; if this stress
is applied and maintained, fracture will result. All
deformation up to this point is uniform throughout
the narrow region of the tensile specimen.
• However, at this maximum stress, a small
constriction or neck begins to form at some point,
and all subsequent deformation is confined at this
neck.

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3.2 TENSILE PROPERTIES FOR PLASTIC
DEFORMATION
• Ductility is another important mechanical property. It is a measure of the
degree of plastic deformation that has been sustained at fracture. A metal
that experiences very little or no plastic deformation upon fracture is termed
brittle.
• The tensile stress–strain behaviors for both ductile and brittle metals are
schematically illustrated in Figure 3.2.6

Figure 3.2.6
Schematic representations of
tensile stress–strain behavior for brittle
and ductile metals loaded to fracture.

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3.2 TENSILE PROPERTIES FOR PLASTIC
DEFORMATION
• Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb
energy when it is deformed elastically and then,
upon unloading, to have this energy recovered

Figure 3.2.7
Schematic representation showing how
modulus of resilience (corresponding to
the shaded area) is determined from the
tensile stress–strain behavior of a
material.

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3.2 TENSILE PROPERTIES FOR PLASTIC
DEFORMATION
• Toughness is a mechanical term that may be
used in several contexts. For one, toughness
(or more specifically, fracture toughness) is a
property that is indicative of a material’s
resistance to fracture when a crack (or other
stress-concentrating defect) is present.
• Another way of defining toughness is as the
ability of a material to absorb energy and
plastically deform before fracturing
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3.3 MATERIAL FAILURE BEHAVIOURS kegagalan (fracture,
fatigue, creep)
Failure of materials may have huge costs. Causes included improper materials selection or
processing, the improper design of components, and improper use.

The usual causes of mechanical failure in the component or system are:

1. • Misuse or abuse
2. • Assembly errors
3. • Manufacturing defects
4. • Improper or inadequate maintenance
5. • Design errors or design deficiencies
6. • Improper material or poor selection of materials
7. • Improper heat treatments

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3.3 MATERIAL FAILURE BEHAVIOURS
3.3.a Fracture

• Fracture - material separate or break into two pieces under apply

stress
• There are commonly two type of fracture, which are Brittle Fracture
and Ductile Fracture.
• For brittle fracture, no apparent plastic deformation takes place
before fracture
• while in ductile fracture, extensive plastic deformation (necking)
takes place before fracture.

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3.3 MATERIAL FAILURE BEHAVIOURS
3.3.a Fracture

ductile fracture (necking) brittle fracture

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21
Ductile Fracture

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Brittle vs. Ductile Fracture

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3.3 MATERIAL FAILURE BEHAVIOURS
3.3.b Fatigue

• The fatigue behavior of material is usually described by means of S

(stress) vs N (number of cycle) diagram.
• Fatigue is the weakening of a material caused by repeatedly applied
loads or cyclic loading.
• The term fatigue is used because this type of failure normally occurs
after a lengthy period of repeated stress or strain cycling.
• The applied stress may be axial (tension-compression), flexural
(bending), or torsional (twisting) in nature.

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Example 1:

Figure a below shows the S-N curve for several types of materials.
Based on figure 4.1:

i. Identify the endurance

limit for 1045 steel,
2014-T6 aluminium
alloy and red brass.

ii. Predict the maximum

allowable stress for 1045
steel, 2014-T6 aluminium
alloy and red brass if the
fatigue life for these materials
is 5 millions cycles without
failing in a design
requirement.
Figure a : S-N Curve For Several Types Of Materials

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Answer
i. 1045 steel = 320 MPa
2014-T6 aluminium alloy : No endurance limit
red brass : No endurance limit
 
i. 1045 steel = 320 MPa
 
2014-T6 aluminium alloy = 180 MPa
 
red brass = 100 MPa

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CHAPTER 3: MATERIAL PROPERTIES AND BEHAVIOUR DJJ3213 MATERIAL SCIENCE

3.3 MATERIAL FAILURE BEHAVIOURS

3.3.c Creep

Creep occurs under certain load at elevated temperature normally

above 40 % of melting temperature of the material. In other words,
creep is progressive plastic deformation under constant stress with
time. There are 3 stages of creep failure:

a) Primary creep: Creep rate decreases with time due to strain

hardening.
b) Secondary creep: Creep rate is constant due to
simultaneous strain hardening and recovery process.
c) Tertiary creep: Creep rate increases with time leading to
necking and fracture

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important

Fracture/fail
ure

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