Group 6 Presentation

Chapter 7, 8, and 9

Gavin Kurey
Kevin Archibeque
David Barboza
Cedric Turcotte
Marcos Gonzales
Overview of Presentation:
Structure, General Properties, and
Applications of:
• Polymers (Ch. 7)
Pictures from Accelrys

• Ceramics, Graphite, and Diamonds (Ch. 8)

• Composite Materials (Ch. 9)

 Chapter 7
Structure, General Properties,
and Applications of Polymers
• Background of Polymers

• Characteristics of Polymers

• The Structure of Polymers

• Types of Plastics and Rubbers

• Recycling Plastics
Background of Polymers
Terminology:
• Polymer – Poly meaning many and mer
meaning unit.
• Monomers – Basic building block of a
polymer.
• Macromolecules – extremely large
collections of molecules to form one unit.
• Plastics – a synonym for polymers.
• Synthetic – manmade.
Background of Polymers
• The word plastic comes from the Greek word
plastikos, meaning capable of being molded
and shaped.
• The earliest polymers, such as cellulose,
were made from natural organic materials from
animals and vegetable products.
Background of Polymers
• Bakelite, the earliest synthetic polymer, is
made from phenolformaldehyde, a thermoset
developed in 1906.
Background of Polymers
• The development of modern polymer
technology began in the 1920’s when raw
materials necessary for making polymers were
extracted from coal and petroleum products.
Ethylene was the first example of such raw
material.
Characteristics of Polymers
• Plastics contain large molecules

• Two common examples of how plastics can be

shaped are:
 Forming
 Machine Casting
Characteristics of Polymers
Characteristics of Polymers
Characteristics of Polymers
Characteristics of Polymers
Advantages of using plastics:
• Low Cost
• Low Electrical and Thermal Conductivity
• Low Density
• High Strength-to-Weight Ratio
• Resistance to Chemical Corrosion
• Amount of Noise Reduction
• Assortment of Colors and Transparencies
• Ease of Manufacturing
• Minimal Additional Surface Treatments
• Forms of Availability Such As: Tubes, Films,
Sheets, Plates, Rods, etc.
Structures of Polymers
Definitions:
•Molecular Weight Distribution (MWD), is the
sum of the molecular weights of the mers in a
chain
• Degree of Polymerization (DP), is the size of
the polymer chain

•MWD and DP determines the tensile strength,

impact strength, and viscosity of polymers.
Structures of Polymers
• An increase in MWD,
increases:
 Tensile Strength
 Impact strength
 Resistance to cracking
 Viscosity

• The larger DP, the larger:

 Viscosity
 Cost (because harder to shape)
Structures of Polymers
• Polymers are very large molecules compared
to most other organic materials
• They are long chain of molecules linked
together by a process called polymerization.
•There are two important types of
Polymerization:
 Condensation Polymerization

 Addition Polymerization
Structures of Polymers
• Condensation Polymerization:
 Known as Step-Growth or Step Reaction
 Is the process in which polymers are
produced by the formation of bonds
between two types of reacting mers. In
better terms, the polymer grows step-by-
step until all of one reactant is consumed.
 Example: Water is condensed out to
make plastic.
Structures of Polymers
• Addition Polymerization:
 Known as chain-growth or chain-reaction
 Much faster than condensation method
 Is the process in which the chain-growth
takes place without reactant by-products
such as water
 An initiator is added to the reaction to
open the double bond between the two
carbon atoms
Structures of Polymers
• Examples of the basic building blocks for
plastics:
Structures of Polymers
• Linear Polymers
 Sequential structures
• Branched Polymers
 Increase resistance to deformation and
stress cracking.
• Cross Linked Polymers
(Thermosets) have a major influence in
polymers. Imparting hardness, strength,
stiffness, brittleness, and better dimensional
stability.
• Networked Polymers
(highly cross linked), have a higher strength
when exposed to high energy radiation, UV
light, x-rays, or electron beams.
Structures of Polymers
• Copolymers contain two types of polymers
 Ex: Styrene-butadiene, used in making tires
• Terpolymers contains three types of
polymers
 Ex: Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene, used to make helmets
Structures of Polymers
• Amorphous, the polymer chains exist without
order.
• Crystallites, the regions arrange themselves
in an orderly manner.
Structures of Polymers
• As Crystallinity increases polymers become:
 Stiffer
 Harder
 Less ductile
 More dense
 Less rubbery
 More resistant
to solvents and heat.
 Thermoplastics
Polymers that can undergo external
shaping forces and return to their
original state

Ex: Acrylics, Nylons, Polyethylenes

 Thermoplastics
Characteristics and Effects on
Thermoplastics:
•Effects of Temperature
•Rate of Deformation
•Orientation
•Creep/Stress Relaxation
•Crazing
•Water Absorption
•Thermal and Electrical Properties
 Effects of Temperature
•Glass-Transition Temperature (Tg)
•Above the Tg, the thermoplastic gradually
softens and eventually turns into a viscous
fluid.
•Repeated heat-cycling causes thermal
aging or degredation.
•Effects of Temp. on thermoplastics is
similar to that of metals, (for increased T,
Increased toughness, strength/modulus of
elasticity decreases)
 Rate of Deformation
•Thermoplastics can undergo large
uniform deformation in tension before
fracture.
•This characteristic allows for
thermoforming.
•Complex shapes can be made, like
bottles, meat trays, etc.
 Orientation
•Under deformation, the molecules
within thermoplastics align themselves
in unison with the deformation.
•This is called Orientation.
•The specimen becomes anistropic
•Important for enhancing strength and
toughness properties
 Creep/Stress Relaxation
•Most thermoplastics are susceptible to
Creeping and/or stress relaxation
•This can even occur at room
temperature!
 Crazing
•Localized, deformed areas that are
wedge-shaped that occur under stress
•Sometimes appearing to be cracks,
crazes are usually comprised of voids
(50%).
•Caused by enviroment stress or other
external forces, like solvents.
•Stress whitening
 Water Absorption
•Polymers absorb water
•Water acts as a plasticizing agent
•Lubrication
•Tg, elastic modulus, and yeild stress
are all lowered when water is absorbed
•Dimensional changes
Thermal/Electrical Properties
•low thermal/electrical conductivity and
a high coefficient of thermal expansion
•Good as insulators and packaging for
electronics
•Doping
•Electrically conducting Polymers
(metal powders, iodides, salts)
•Thermally conducting Polymers
(nonmetallic, conductive particles;100x
more conductive)
 Thermosets
•When long chain molecules in a
polymer become one giant molecule
with strong covalent bonds and is from
then on permanently set.
•The curing reaction of a thermoset is
irreversible, unlike thermoplastics
•No set Tg value, rate of deformation,
or response to temperature.
 Additives in Plastic
•Plasticizers
•Carbon Black
•Fillers
•Colorants
•Flame Retardants
•Lubricants
 Plasticizers
•Adds Flexibility
•Adds Softness
•Achieved by reducing secondary bond
strength
•Most common use of a plasticizer is
found in PVC (Polyvinylchloride)
 Carbon Black
•Soot
•Compounded into plastics and
rubbers
•Protects against Oxidation and
Ultraviolet Radiation
 Fillers
•Reduces overall cost of a polymer
•May improve hardness, toughness,
stiffness, abrasion resistance, etc
•Common fillers include: Saw Dust,
silica flour, clay, mica, talc, asbestos,
etc
 Colorants
•Organic or Inorganic
•Dyes(organic)
•Pigments(inorganic)
•Colorant selection depends on service
temperature and light exposure.
•Pigments have a higher tolerance to
temp and light.
 Flame Retardants
•Additives to reduce the flammability of
a polymer
•Common additives include
phosphorus, chlorine, and boron
•Cross-linking reduces flammability as
well
 Lubricants
•Added to reduce friction during
processing.
•Typical lubricants are: Linseed oil,
mineral oil, waxes, metallic soaps, etc
•Very important to keep thin polymer
sheets from sticking to each other
General Applications of
Thermoplastics and
Thermosets
 Biodegradable Plastics
•Biodegrability - microbial species can
decompose the object over time
•Three different biodegradable plastics
have been developed thus far: Starch-
based, Lactic-based, and Fermented
Sugar Systems.
 Recycling
•Thermoplastics can be recycled by
melting them down and reshaping
them into new products
•Recycling symbols/numbers
1 PETE (polyethylene)
2 HDPE (high density polyethylene)
3 V (vinyl)
4 LDPE (low density polyethylene)
5 PP (polypropylene)
6 PS (polystyrene)
7 Other
 Elastomers
•Also known as Rubber
•Ability to undergo large elastic
deformations without rupture
•Highly kinked structure
•Stretch under load, but return to
original shape without load
•Vulcanization (cross-linking w/ sulfur)
•Types of elastomers: Natural Rubber,
Synthetic Rubber, Silicones,
Polyurethane
 Ceramics
Definition: Ceramics are compounds of metallic and non-metallic
elements

Two Major
Categories:
Traditional such as whiteware,
tiles, bricks, and pottery.

Industrial uses:
turbines, cutting tools, and aerospace applications.
Major types of oxide ceramics

Alumina:
•Used both in its raw form or as an ingredient
blended with other ceramics.
•Are the most commonly used ceramic
material
•Used as an abrasive such as grinding wheels
or sandpaper.
•Affordable compared to other ceramics.
Major types of oxide ceramics
Zirconia:
•Possesses high toughness and strength,
resistance to thermal shock, wear, corrosion and
low thermal conductivity.
•Excellent or good for high heat applications such as
dies for hot extrusions, aerospace coatings.

Definitions:
•Thermal Shock-Refers to the development of
cracks after a single thermal cycle.
•Thermal conductivity- Rate at which heat flows
within and through a material. Ionically or
covalently bonded have poor conductivity
 Carbides
Tungsten Carbide
•Made from tungsten-carbide particles with cobalt as a binder
•The quantity of binder used has a major influence on the attributes of
the final product.
•Cobalt increases toughness, but hardness, strength, and wear
resistance decreases
Titanium Carbide
• Not as tough as Tungsten Carbide.

•Uses nickel and molybdenum as a binder.

•Most often used as cutting tools.

Silicon carbide
•Low friction coefficient while still retaining its strength at elevated
temperatures.
 Nitrides
Cubic Boron Nitride
•It is the second hardest known substance.
•Synthetically made in a manner similar to synthetic
diamonds.
•It is not found in nature.
•It is often used in cutting tools and abrasive wheels.

Silicon Nitride
•Used in high temperature applications since it possesses a high resistance
to thermal shock and creep.

Definition
•Creep is the permanent elongation of a component under a static load
over a long period of time.
 Nitrides

Titanium Nitride (TiN)

• Is gold in color and is very widely used as a coating for cutting tools. Drill
bits, end mills, etc.
 Sialon and Cermets
Sialon
•It is a combination of Silicon, Aluminum, Oxygen, and Nitrogen.
•It is more thermal-shock resistant and has a higher strength than Silicon
Nitride.
•It sees use as a machine cutting tool.

Cermets
•It is a combination of Ceramics phase bonded with a Metallic phase.
•They marry the high temperature oxidation resistance of ceramics
with the ductility, toughness, and thermal-shock of metals.
•Introduced in the 1960’s.
•Often used in machining tools.
 Silica and Nanoceramics
Silica
•Found in nature silica can have different crystal structures or is called a
polymorphic material.
•The most common form found is quartz.
•The cubic structure is found in the ceramic refractory bricks used in high
temperature furnaces.

Nanoceramics
•By reducing the size of the particles, nanoceramics are formed.
•They consist of atomic clusters containing a few thousand atoms.
•They are ductile at much lower temperatures than conventional ceramics
•Stronger and easier to machine with less flaws.
•Found in the automotive industry for valves, turbocharger rotors, and
cylinder linings.
 Bioceramics
Because of their strength and inertness the most common uses include
replacement for human joints, prosthetic devices and teeth crowns.
 Advantages/Disadvantages
Advantages
•Ceramics tend to be very hard, abrasion resistant, able to operate
in high temperatures, and resistant to corrosive chemicals.

Disadvantages
•Expensive to manufacture and machine
•Due to the hardness and the abrasive nature of many ceramics
diamond tools are required to machine, which is very time
consuming and expensive.
•Tend to be brittle and do not take impact loads very well.
•Not as tough as metal
 Section 8.4 - 8.7

•Types of Glasses

•Properties of Glasses

•Glass Ceramics

•Types of Graphite

•Diamond
 Glass Terminology
Terminology:
Glass- an amorphous solid with the structure
of a liquid.
Glass is an inorganic product of fusion that
has been supercooled to a rigid condition
without crystallizing.
Supercooled- the cooling of a liquid at a rate
too high to allow crystals to form.
 Types of Glasses
•Soda-lime glass- The most common type of
commercial glass.
•Lead-alkali glass-
•Borosilicate glass
•Aluminosilicate glass
•96%-silica glass
•Fused silica glass
Types of Glasses
Soda-lime glass
Types of Glasses
Lead-alkali glass
Types of Glasses
Borosilicate glass
Types of Glasses
Aluminosilicate glass
Types of Glasses
96%-silica glass
Types of Glasses
Fused silica glass
 Characteristics of Glass
Glass is categorizied by its:
•Density
•Strength
•Resistance to thermal shock
•Electrical resistivity
•Hot workability
•Heat Treatability
•Chemical Resistance
•Impact-abrasion resistance
•Ultraviolet-light transmission
 Glass Classifications
•Colored
•Opaque (White or Translucent)
•Photochromatic (Darkens with light exposure)
•Photosensitive (Changing from clear to opaque
•Fibrous (Constructed of long fibers)
•Foam or cellular (containing bubbles)
•Hard or Soft (Thermal hardness)
•Elasticity (Modulus of elasticity 55 to 90 GPa)
•Scratch Resistance (350 to 500 HK)
 Glass Ceramics
•Glass Ceramics have a higher crystalline
component than that of glass.
•This increase in crystalline is due to the
Devitrification of the glass.
•Devitrification- is the recrystallization of glass
which occurs due to the heat treating of the
glass after the desired shape is
constructed.
•Glass Ceramics have a hardness of 520 to
650 HK, which is significantly larger than
the hardness of typical glass (350 to 500
HK).
 Characteristics of Glass
Ceramics
•High resistance to thermal-shock, due to their
non-zero coefficient of thermal expansion
•Extremely strong due to the absence of
porosity; which is typically found in traditional
ceramics
•Glass ceramics are commonly used for
cookware, heat exchangers in gas turbines
engines, housing for radar antennas, and
other electrical applications.
 Background on Graphite
•Graphite- a crystalline form of carbon
having a layered structure with basal planes
or sheet of close-packed carbon atoms.

•Lampblack (black soot) is an amorphous

graphite that is used as a pigment
 Characteristics of Graphite
•The strength and stiffness of graphite
increases with temperature
•High electrical and thermal conductivity
•Good resistance to thermal shock and high
temperature
•High resistance to chemicals
 Types of Graphite and Uses
•Graphite Fibers- used to reinforce plastics
•Carbon and Graphite Foams- used for core
material for aircraft and ship interior
panels, structural insulation, sound absorption
panels, lithium-ion batteries, and for fire and
thermal protection
•Buckyballs- solid lubricant particles that are
made from lampblack (black soot)
•Nanotubes- used as a natural building material
for new microelectromechanical systems
 Types of Glasses
Buckyballs Nanotubes
 Diamonds
•Diamond- a principal form of carbon with a
covalently bonded structure
•Hardest substance known (7000 to 8000 HK)
•Very brittle, starts to decompose in air at
700oC
 Chapter 9:

Composite Materials
 Definition:
A composite material is a combination of
two or more chemically distinct and
insoluble phases with recognizable
interface, in such manner that its properties
and structural performance are superior to
those of the constituents acting
independently.
(Book definition p.238)
Quick examples:
Every day use to space ship applications…
•First engineering application 1907:
acid-resistant tank (Phenolic resin with asbestos fibers)
•Steel-wire reinforced tires;
•Snow boards / skis;
•Tennis raquets;
•Protective gear;
Quick
examples:

Reinforced
concrete;

2 x more
resistant
(compression)
 Quick examples:
Sailboard
(see p.249);
 Quick examples:
Fiberglass;
 Quick examples:

Brake pads / rotors;

 Quick examples:

High speed
fan blades;
 Quick examples:
High performance racing body parts;
Structure of reinforced plastics (composite)

Don’t get confused by the PLASTIC appellation.

Reinforced plastics: also know as polymer-matrix

composites & fiber-reinforced plastics.

Two phases:
1 . Fibers (discontinuous)
2. Matrix (continuous)
 Fibers:

Known as a slender, elongated, threadlike

object or structure
 Fibers: (continued)

They combine high strength and high stiffness.

Variety
Graphite – Glass – Boron – Polymer;
Others (boron carbide, steel, aluminium oxide, etc.)

When more then two fibers are used, the composite is called a hybrid.

Percentage of fibers in reinforced plastics varies from 10% to 60%.

Anything higher then 65% usually result in lower structural properties.

Fibers are sometimes treated with a coating to increase bonding strength

between fiber and matrix.
 Fibers: (continued)
Cross-section usually less then 0.0004 in. (hair =0.001in)
Sensible to defects

Short & long fibers: In a given type of fiber, if the mechanical

properties improve as a result of increasing the average fiber length,
then it is call a short fiber. Otherwise it’s a long fiber.

Continuous fibers: Offers a better control on composite’s

reaction. Generally use for oriented forces or for increased
properties.
 Matrix

Known as the bonding substance.

 Matrix (continued)

Tough and generally chemically inert.

Functions:
• Support the fibers in place and transfer the stress to
them while they carry most of the load;
• Protect the fibers against physical damage and the
environment;
• Reduce the propagation of cracks in the composite
by virtue of the greater ductility and toughness of the
plastic matrix.
 Matrix (continued)

Thermosets: epoxies (80%) – polyester - silicon

Thermoplastics: Polyetheretherketone; thougher then

thermosets, but lower temperature resistance;

Metals: aluminium – magnesium - titanium

Ceramics: silicon carbide/nitride – aluminium oxide - mullite

 Properties
The mechanical and physical properties of reinforced plastics
depend on type, shape, and orientation of the reinforcing
material, the length of the fibers, and the volume fraction of the
reinforcing material.

Short fibers are less effective than long fibers.

Bond strength between fibers and matrix is a critical to avoid fiber

pullout and delamination, and to maintain good load transmission.
 Orientation of fibers
Random(5-25%)
(mostly short or long fibers, not continuous)

Orthogonal (20-40%) Unidirectional (100%)

 Orientation of fibers

Figure 9.7 The tensile strength

of glass-reinforced polyester as a
function of fiber content and
fiber direction in the matrix.
Source: R. M. Ogorkiewicz, The
Engineering Properties of
Plastics. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1977.
Various fibers
Various fibers

TABLE 9.2
Tensile Elastic
strength modulus Density
3
Type (MPa) (GPa) ( kg/m ) Relative cost
Boron 3500 380 2600 Highest
Carbon
High strength 3000 275 1900 Low
High modulus 2000 415 1900 Low
Glass
E type 3500 73 2480 Lowest
S type 4600 85 2540 Lowest
Kevlar
29 2800 62 1440 High
49 2800 117 1440 High
Note: These properties vary significantly depending on the material and method of preparation.
 Various metal matrix

TABLE 9.3
Fiber Matrix Applications
Graphite Aluminum Satellite, missile, and helicopter structures
Magnesium Space and satellite structures
Lead Storage-battery plates
Copper Electrical contacts and bearings
Boron Aluminum Compressor blades and structural supports
Magnesium Antenna structures
Titanium Jet-engine fan blades
Alumina Aluminum Superconductor restraints in fission power reactors
Lead Storage-battery plates
Magnesium Helicopter transmission structures
Silicon carbide Aluminum, titanium High-temperature structures
Superalloy (cobalt-base) High-temperature engine components
Molybdenum, tungsten Superalloy High-temperature engine components
 References for Chapter 7
• http://www.accelrys.com • http://www.scandia-nh.com
• http://www.edmar-co.com • http://www.tristanperich.com
• http://www.mahjongmuseum.com
• http://www.4to40.com
• http://www.seismo.unr.edu
• http://www.silverhook.co.uk
• http://www.nyu.edu
• http://www.euroarms.net
• http://alfiesantiques.com
• http://depts.washington.edu
• http://www.camposgroup.com
• http://www.texwipe.com
• http://archives.cnn.com
• http://www.sandretto.it
• http://weather.wkowtv.com/ images/
 References For Chapter 8
•www.performancecoatings.com
•www.ortechceramics.com
•www.ceramicindustry.com
•www.bearingworks.com
•www.tribology.com
•www.fujikin.com
•www.ornl.gov
 References
• HTTP://WWW.MS.ORNL.GOV/RESEARC
HGROUPS/CMT/FOAMS/FOAMS.HTM
• http://handle.tamu.edu/1969.1/55
• http://uk.dk.com/static/cs/uk/11/features/mi
ller/images/aa_104_7_HAMG220304.jpg
• http://www.pilkington.com/resources/floatst
ructure.jpg
• http://www.beadmuseumdc.org/beadimag
es/bubble.jpg
• http://www.pelletlab.com/images/1870.jpg
 Reference List
• http://www.element-collection.com
• http://www.ecplaza.net/tradeleads/seller/3415
816/fused_silica_tube.html#none

• www.dupont.com/safetyglass/
lgn/stories/2906.html
• fireartstudio.ca/ WarmGlass.htm
• www.ill.fr/dif/ 3D-crystals/bonding.html
http://www.hofstra.edu/Academics/HCLAS/Ch
emistry/CHM_faculty_nirode.cfm
 References

•Book ‘Des Materiaux’, Jean-Paul Baïlon, Edition Polytechnique.

•http://hypertextbook.com/facts/1999/BrianLey.shtml