Composting &

Vermicomposting
Unit 02: Soil

Lecture by: Rajiv Pathak

HWIC
Introduction
Definition: biological, chemical, physical and a highly aerobic process
that transforms large, bulky, coarse materials (esp. plants, and animal
manures) into a homogeneous, stable end product
• Biological process: mediated by microbes
• Actual decomposition is chemical: via acids and enzymes
• Environmental conditions are to be modulated to influence the rate
of composting process
• Compost is the end product of the composting process
• Can be used in two ways: a) soil builder/conditioner b) fertilizer Fig: compost heaps with food and kitchen
with immediate and long-term benefits waste

Organic matter + O2 + aerobic bacteria = CO2 + NH3 + H2O + other

end products + energy

Compost properties:
• peaty humus
• dark in color
• crumbly texture
• Earthy odor (resembles rich topsoil)
• High quality compost devoid of weed seeds and organisms that
may be pathogenic to humans, animals or plants
Fig: Composting in barrel (home setup)
• Cured compost relatively stable and resistant to further
decomposition by microbes
Composting – Process overview
Composting Process – Overview

• Process carried out mainly by aerobic microorganisms

• Process can be divided into two main periods:
1. Active composting: period of vigorous microbial activity; decomposition of readily degradable
material and decay-resistant material (cellulose)
2. Curing: period after active composting; lower level of microbial activity; Compost is stabilized
when curing reaches its final stage
• Compost pile passes through a wide range of temperature over the course of active composting
period (three temperature ranges – fig)
• Different temperature favor different microbes
• A short lag period exists before rapid temperature rise (Time required for microbial population
growth)
• Microbes in compost pile: Bacteria (fast decompose simple sugars and product of fungal
decomposition), Fungi (decay woody substances, decay-resistant material like waxes, proteins,
hemicellulose, lignin and pectin), Actinomycetes (decay organic acids, starches, hemicellulose,
lignin), higher organisms (protozoa, rotifers, nematodes – after compost pile cools- consume
fungal and bacterial biomass and aid in degradation of legnins and pectins)
• Aerobic respiration is preferred over anaerobic respiration and fermentation for composting because it is
more efficient, generates more energy, operates at higher temperatures, and does not produce the same
quantity of odorous compounds
Composting Process – Overview

Active composting
• Microbial population grow during a short lag period at the start
• Microbial degradation of easily degradable material and microbial
population growth generate temperature which is trapped by the
self-insulating compost material
• Temperature increase steadily through the psychrophilic and
mesophilic temperature ranges
• Depending on operation type, compost pile typically take 2-3 days
to increase beyond mesophilic temperatures and reach the
thermophilic stage (peak temperature range: 50 – 70 degree
Celsius)
• As temperature reach upper limits (microbial activity decrease:
enzyme denaturation and spore formation in response to stress)
Fig: Temperature range throughout
• As microbial activity decrease, more heat is lost from the pile than active composting
is generated (pile begins to cool)
• Compost pile remains in thermophilic stage for 10-60 days
• Once temperature decrease below 40 degree Celsius, curing period
begins
• At this point, the pile conditions are such that microbial activity
cannot increase enough to raise temperatures
Composting Process – Overview

Curing
• Generally lasts for 1-6 months
• Lower level of microbial activity
• Stabilization of products
• Stabilization includes:
1. further decomposition of organic acids and decay resistant compounds
2. Formation of humic compounds
3. Formation of nitrate-nitrogen
• Certain fungi accumulate during this stage, thus adding to the disease suppressant quality of the
compost
• Little heat generated during this process: microbial activity is low
• Moisture management and aeration is still required during the process
• Length of curing period dependent on the type of operation and active composting
period(shorter period ones require longer curing and vice-versa)
• Curing considered complete when the pile returns to ambient temperature after repeated mixing
Factors influencing the composting process

a) Particle size: small particles size favors growth of microbes – hence increase microbial
activity and composting rate
b) Nutrients: Carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium are common macronutrients
required in large amounts for microbial growth; Ideal C:N ratios(20:1 to 40:1)
c) pH: Ideal range: 6.5 – 8 – pH levels dependent on the type of raw material; IN most cases pH
doesn’t require adjustment; however raw materials rich in nitrogen tend to increase pH due to
the formation of ammonia; addition of superphoshate is a technique to resolve this issue
d) Moisture: Total net weight moisture should be at around 40-65%; moisture < 40% (less
microbial activity); moisture > 65% (anaerobic conditions due to clogging; slows microbial
activity); moisture < 15% (microbial activity stops)
e) Aeration and Agitation: agitation at timely intervals to maintain proper airflow (aeration);
forced or passive aeration maybe used; mechanical agitators maybe used for forced aeration
f) Nitrogen losses: dependent on the materials used, method and management practice; Nitrogen
losses is related with the odor problems and ground water contamination
Assignment no. 1

1) Write short notes on some of the traditional and modern

composting techniques. The techniques may vary according to
regions and agricultural systems around the world. Compare the
different techniques by highlighting their strengths and
weaknesses and suitability to various farming setups. (Note: Focus
on some new innovative composting techniques that you may find)
Composting – Advantages
Volume reduction of waste

Composting temperature kills pathogen, weed seeds and seeds

Improves manure  handling

Reduces the risk of pollution

Maybe an additional source of revenue

Suppress plant diseases and pests.

Reduce or eliminate the need for chemical fertilizers.

Promote higher yields of agricultural crops

Cost-effectively remediate soils contaminated by hazardous waste

Provide cost savings of at least 50 percent over conventional soil, water, and air pollution remediation
technologies, where applicable.
Benefits of compost use for soil
A. Improves soil structure and soil aggregate stability,: hence, better drainage, aeration, air/gas exchange,
erosion resistance, tilth (workablity), and the soil’s ability to recover from compaction
• Soil microbes live within and between micropores in soil aggregates: bacteria through sticky exudates,
fungi through their hyphal interaction
• Exudates like sugar-like polysaccharides (non-sweet sugars) bind individual soil particles together
• Thread-like hyphae of fungi secrete a gooey protein called glomalin that also aids in aggregation
B) Increases moisture retention
C) Provides a slow-release source of nutrients and increases availability of minerals
D) Increases Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC): thus increase availability of Ca, Mg, and K
E) Increases microbial population and diversity in soil
F) Helps buffer soil pH by neutralizing both acid and alkaline soils (Compost pH is optimally 6.0–7.0)
G) Compost organisms promote disease suppression by various tactics (competitive interactions): a)
Predation: eg. fungi predate on detrimental nematodes) ii. Competition: Outcompete pathogens for
niches and resources c) Suppression: Produce acids and antibiotics that suppress or kill pathogenic
organisms
H) Plays key role in soil fertility management in organic systems
Compost use - Drawbacks
Low nutrient value compared to chemical fertilizers

Slow rate of nutrient release: can’t meet immediate nutrient requirements of

crops

Nutrient composition varies greatly according to the material used for composting

Space needed for composting can take up available production land

Odor or other impacts on neighbors can create challenges in urban/suburban area

Cost and time: Many farmers and gardeners don’t make their own compost
because of equipment needs, materials costs, and labor expenses
Vermicomposting
Introduction
Vermicomposting: composting process mediated by earthworms. Thus formed compost is
called vermicompost
• Vermiculture: scientific method of breeding and raising earthworms in controlled
conditions
• Vermitechnology: technology that systematically combines the above two practices
• Vermicomposting provides a viable outlet for waste management and production of
nutrient rich organic fertilizer

Fig: Vermicomposting Fig: Worms at the time of harvest

Earthworms
• Phyllum: Annelida
• Long, cylindrical in shape and size with large
number of grooves
• Around 3000 species of earthworms available
• Hermaphrodite in nature (but require a partner for
propagation)
• Offsprings come out in hard shells called cocoons
• Average lifespan range from 1-10 years
• Epigeics (surface feeders) are essential for
vermicomposting
Fig: Eisenia fetida • Eg: Eisenia fetida, Eudrilus euginae
• These worms tend to stay at the bottom when
inactive, and come to the surface to feed

Fig: Earthworm cocoons

Earthworms - activities
Physical/mechanical: Earthworm activities during
• Substrate aeration and mixing due to the vermicomposting:
movement of the worms inside the • Maintain aerobic conditions in the mixture
substrate as well as actual grinding • Ingest solids
• Keeps organic waste constantly aerated • Convert a portion of the organics into worm
and achieves cooling biomass and to respiration products
• saves costs on mechanical process units for • Expel the remaining partially stabilised
mixing used in conventional (hot) matter as discrete material (earthworm faeces
composting or “castings”)
Biochemical: • Worms and aerobic mesophilic
• Microbial decomposition of the substrate microorganisms act symbiotically to
in the intestines of the earthworms accelerate and enhance the decomposition of
• Earthworms secrete enzymes like protease, the organic matter
lipase, amylase, cellulase and chitinase in
their gizzard and intestine
Microbial:
• Promote growth of beneficial microbes in
waste biomass
• Host millions of decomposer microbes in
their gut
Vermicompost - properties
• Very finely structured, uniform, stable and
aggregated particles of humified organic
material
• Excellent porosity, aeration and water holding
capacity
• Rich in available plant nutrients, hormones,
enzymes and (benign) microbial populations
Mostly pathogen-free: Plant and human pathogens
are killed during passage of the earthworm gut
• Earth-like, soil building substance that forms a
beneficial growing environment for plant roots
• Valuable and marketable product
Optimum environment for vermicomposting
Optimum conditions for vermicomposting:
• pH: 6.5-7.5
• Moisture: 60-70%
• Temperature: 18-35 degree Celsius

Factors affecting the rate of degradation of

compost:
1. Portion of the waste that is degradable
Fig: Eisenia fetida
2. Maintenance of aerobic conditions
3. Absence of toxic compounds

Common species of earthworm used:

4. Eisenia fetida
5. Eisenia andrei
6. Eudrilus eugenics
7. Perionyx excavators
8. Dendrobaena veneta
Fig: Eudrilus eugeniae
Vermicomposting - Procedure
1. Prepared usually by pit or heap method. Typical dimensions are 10 * 4 * 2 feet (length and breadth
maybe changed, but the depth should not be increased)
2. Common setup comprises of three layers:
• Layer 1: Bedding material (cardboards or papers for smaller scale; soft leaves for large scale)
• Layer 2: around 9” thick organic residue layer (maybe pre-decomposed material)
• Layer 3: Dung (preferably cow dung) + water around 2” in depth
3. Moisture should be maintained by spraying water at intervals (depends on the temperature and
humidity)
4. After 2-3 weeks, earthworms (1.6-2 kg/m2) are introduced into the pit
5. The compost is ready in around 3 months
6. Compost turnover is around 60-75%

Fig: Waste to compost

transformation
Vermicomposting setups

Fig: Pit setups

Fig: Heap or windrow setups

Vermicomposting setups

Fig: Trays for small scale (home-

based) setup
Harvesting of compost
Watering or adding moisture should be stopped a
week before harvest

Spread out worms may sometimes come together

to entangle and form a ball in multiple locations

Balls of worms should be removed and the heap of

compost should be prepared (Earthworms tend to
move towards the bottom)

Compost is separated and then sieved through a Fig: Manual screening of vermicompost
sieve(around 2mm pore size) and stored

The pit can be used for recomposting

Vermicomposting - Precautions
Vermicompost beds/heaps should not be covered with plastic sheets
(heat and gas entrapment is detrimental to the worms)

Overloading of heaps should be avoided (prevents temeperature increase)

Watering should be done at proper intervals: everyday in summer, and

every 3 days in rainy and winter seasons

Acidic waste (especially citrus vegetable waste, tomatoes), meat products,

should be avoided

Proper drainage channels should be in place to avoid water stagnation –

esp. during rainy seasons (waterlogging is detrimental to the composting
process)

Organic materials used for composting should be screened before use (to
avoid non-degradable, sharp materials)
Vermicomposting Vs Regular Composting
Comparisons
Process variable Vermicomposting Hot composting

Conditions Aerobic

Process 15 - 25ºC 50-70ºC

temperature
Type of Ambient to mesophilic (<40ºC) – Thermophilic (at least for
temperature otherwise worms will be killed part of the time)

Method of Apply waste frequently in thin Stack waste material in

operation layers (continuous operation rather large piles so that heat
than batch) produced is retained in pile
(usually batch operation)
Comparisons

Process variable Vermicomposting Hot composting

Earthworms Present in large quantities Only present at beginning (die

off at temperature in pile >
35°C)

Pathogen Passage through worm gut Elevated temperature over

destruction (biochemical digestion) extended period (> 1 week) and
mechanism action of microorganisms

Final product Vermicompost or vermicast; Compost; relatively little

microbiologically active (this microbial activity
is good for the soil)
Comparisons: Organic fertilizers
Vermicomposting – Pros & Cons
Pros Cons
• Less labor-intensive – no turning/aerating • Won’t kill seeds
necessary (worm activity helps to mix, • More space required to process similar
fragment and aerate materials) amounts as hot composting - need to be
• Cooler temperatures help conserve nitrogen careful with amount added (since excess heat
• Higher moisture contents not an issue (and will kill worms)
actually preferred) • Outdoor systems much more limited by cold
• Materials can be constantly added weather
• Size of system unimportant - ideally suited • Worms need to be separated from compost
for both indoors and outdoors • Worms (although quite resilient) do require
• Considerable evidence to indicate that some attention and proper care
vermicomposts have beneficial properties
not found in hot composts
• Under ideal conditions, wastes can be
processed very quickly